Ingredients

Flavour. Earthy, mildly peppery and faintly sweet, with a deep red-orange colour that stains everything it touches.

Aroma. Warm and slightly tangy, with notes of clove and oregano.

Common uses. The signature seasoning of Yucatecan cooking. The base of cochinita pibil (slow-roasted pork), pollo pibil and tikinxic fish; also used in marinades, rubs and tamales across southern Mexico and Belize.

Flavour. Mild and bready when bloomed, contributing the savoury depth of a slow fermentation rather than direct taste.

Aroma. Faintly beery when activated in warm water; transforms into the warm yeasty smell of rising dough.

Common uses. The standard leavener for breads, buns, pizza doughs, brioche and most yeasted bakes. Needs blooming in warm liquid (35-40°C) before use; instant yeast can substitute without blooming.

Flavour. Sharp, bitter and intensely thyme-like; a small pinch goes a long way.

Aroma. Strongly aromatic, similar to thyme or oregano due to a high thymol content.

Common uses. Common in Indian, Pakistani and Afghan cooking. Tempered in hot oil at the start of dals, vegetable curries, parathas and savoury snacks (pakoras, samosas); also used in spice mixes and breads.

Flavour. Moderate heat with a sweet, fruity, slightly raisin-like depth; less aggressive than crushed red pepper flakes.

Aroma. Warm and faintly tangy, with a hint of cumin.

Common uses. A staple across Syrian, Turkish and Levantine cooking. Sprinkled over hummus, muhammara, fattoush, kebabs, eggs, soups and roasted vegetables. Great for finishing a dish where you want colour and gentle heat.

Flavour. Rich and buttery, with a clean clean dairy taste that mass-market margarine-based puff pastry lacks.

Aroma. Sweet and toasted as it bakes.

Common uses. Tarte tatin, palmiers, pithiviers, vol-au-vents, sausage rolls, mille-feuille, beef wellington. The shop-bought variety is almost always fine for home cooking; making it from scratch is a weekend project.

Flavour. A warm composite tasting of cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg in one berry.

Aroma. Sweet, warm and slightly peppery; the name describes the scent better than the flavour.

Common uses. Caribbean jerk seasonings, Middle Eastern stews, baharat, German pickling spice, Christmas baking. Ground or whole; whole goes into stocks and pickling liquids, ground into rubs and cakes.

Flavour. A warm composite of cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg, more nuanced than the pre-ground powder.

Aroma. Sweet, woody and faintly peppery; intensifies when crushed.

Common uses. The whole-spice form of allspice. Used in pickling brines, mulled wine, jerk marinades, Middle Eastern slow-braises and Christmas hams. Toast and grind fresh for the deepest flavour.

Flavour. Sweet, buttery and slightly tannic from the skin, with a clean nutty depth.

Aroma. Mild and pleasantly nutty raw; toasty and intensely fragrant when roasted.

Common uses. In every form across world cooking: whole as a snack, sliced over salads, ground into frangipane and macarons, milled into flour for gluten-free baking, blanched and skinned for refined desserts.

Flavour. Sweet and buttery with a slight tannic edge from the skin.

Aroma. Subtly nutty raw, deeply fragrant once toasted.

Common uses. Toasted as a snack, ground into nut butter or flour, pressed into oil, slivered over salads and pilafs, blanched whole for marzipan. Foundational in North African tagines, Spanish picada, Italian biscotti.

Flavour. Sweet and almond-like (made from apricot stones, not almonds), with marzipan and bitter-cherry notes.

Aroma. Strong almond essence with caramel and stone-fruit undertones.

Common uses. In desserts (tiramisù, panna cotta, cherry-based cakes), drizzled over ice cream, splashed into coffee, or stirred into whipped cream. Classic cocktails: amaretto sour, godfather.

Flavour. Tangy, savoury and slightly sweet, with the fruitiness of green mango cut by fenugreek and turmeric.

Aroma. Sharp and pungent with a fermented edge.

Common uses. An Iraqi-Jewish pickled mango condiment, central to the Iraqi shawarma and falafel sandwich and now everywhere across Israeli street food. Spooned into pita with sabich or shawarma, swirled over hummus.

Flavour. Sharply sour and slightly fruity, with a dusty, gentle astringency.

Aroma. Faintly fruity, like sun-dried mango.

Common uses. Indian dried-mango powder used to add sourness without liquid. Sprinkled into chaat, samosa fillings, tandoori marinades, channa masala and chickpea curries; an essential of the Indian sour-pungent palette.

Flavour. Sharply sour with a faint fruity sweetness; the alternative romanisation of amchoor (the same spice).

Aroma. Dry, dusty and faintly fruity.

Common uses. Indian dried green-mango powder. Adds sourness to dry rubs, tandoori marinades, chaat masala, samosa filling, channa masala. Use ½ tsp per 1 tbsp lemon juice as a non-liquid substitute.

Flavour. Pungent, sour, slightly sweet and oily; built around mustard seeds, fenugreek, turmeric and chilli, balanced with salt and amchur.

Aroma. Warm, mustard-forward and fragrant - the smell of a freshly opened jar of Indian pickle.

Common uses. The seasoning mix used to make Indian pickles (achar), most famously mango, lemon and lime pickles. Also stirred into yoghurt, mixed into raitas, or used as a rub for grilled fish.

Flavour. Mild heat with deep raisin, prune and chocolate notes; the dried form of the poblano pepper.

Aroma. Sweet, smoky and fruity.

Common uses. A foundational chilli in Mexican cooking, especially in moles, adobos, salsa rojas and chilli con carne. Soaked, blended into pastes; toasted whole and ground; or rehydrated and stuffed.

Flavour. Deeply salty and umami-rich; cured anchovies dissolve into a savoury backbone that doesn't taste obviously fishy.

Aroma. Briny and sea-like, becoming richer as they melt into hot fat.

Common uses. Melted into pasta sauces (puttanesca, spaghetti alle vongole base), Caesar dressing, bagna cauda, lamb roasts, niçoise salads. A flavour multiplier - barely traceable in the finished dish but missed when absent.

Flavour. Intensely salty and savoury, with a clean briny umami; the cured fillet is more refined than the whole fish.

Aroma. Briny and oceanic, rich when warmed in oil.

Common uses. Mashed into Caesar dressing, melted into pasta sauces, draped over pissaladière, blended into bagna cauda or salsa verde. Often labelled "salted" (rinse first) or "in oil" (use straight from the jar).

Flavour. Concentrated salt and umami; the oil itself takes on the flavour and is usable in dressings.

Aroma. Briny and warm.

Common uses. The home cook's default form: ready-to-use, no soaking. Use straight from the tin in pasta sauces, dressings, on toast. Reserve the oil for whisking into vinaigrettes or for finishing roasted vegetables.

Flavour. Smoky, peppery and garlicky, with a deep porky savouriness; the Louisiana version is bolder than the French original.

Aroma. Heavily smoked, with a hit of paprika and bay.

Common uses. The backbone of Cajun and Creole cooking - gumbo, jambalaya, red beans and rice, étouffée. Sliced and browned before going into the pot so the rendered fat seasons everything else.

Flavour. Sweet and pronounced liquorice-like; warming with a clean, lingering finish.

Aroma. Strong and unmistakably liquorice-like.

Common uses. Mediterranean and Indian baking, German Christmas biscuits (Pfeffernüsse), Middle Eastern aniseed bread. The liqueur form (pastis, ouzo, arak, sambuca) is built on it. Pairs with fennel and tarragon.

Flavour. Sweet liquorice notes, very similar to fennel seed but slightly more concentrated.

Aroma. Strong and characteristically liquorice-like.

Common uses. The whole seed of anise. Used in mulled wine, German Lebkuchen, Indian mukhwas (digestive seed mix), Italian taralli biscuits and Middle Eastern breads. Often confused with star anise (different plant, similar flavour).

Flavour. Earthy and faintly peppery, with a slightly sweet edge; mainly used for its vibrant colour rather than its taste.

Aroma. Mild and slightly nutty when bloomed in oil.

Common uses. The natural colourant behind Cheshire cheese, Caribbean rice dishes, cochinita pibil and Filipino kare-kare. Bloomed in oil to extract colour, then strained, or ground and added to spice mixes.

Flavour. Earthy and mildly peppery, with a subtle musky sweetness; the colour does most of the work.

Aroma. Faintly nutty and warm, especially when toasted or bloomed.

Common uses. The whole-seed form of annatto. Bloomed in hot oil to make achiote oil (the base of cochinita pibil, kare-kare, arroz amarillo) or ground into adobo and seasoning blends.

Flavour. Sweet to tart depending on variety; flesh ranges from crisp and clean (Granny Smith) to mealy and aromatic (Bramley after cooking).

Aroma. Faintly floral when fresh; warmer and almost caramelised when baked.

Common uses. Eaten raw, baked into pies and tarts, stewed for sauce, juiced, fermented into cider and cider vinegar. Cooking apples (Bramley) break down; eating apples (Cox, Pink Lady) hold their shape.

Flavour. Sharp and tangy with a soft apple-y sweetness; lighter and fruitier than white wine vinegar.

Aroma. Crisp and faintly cidery.

Common uses. The mainstay of British and American cooking - in BBQ sauces, salad dressings, pickling brines, slaws, brown sauces. Also folk-remedy fame as a digestive tonic. Unfiltered "with the mother" is just visually murkier; the cooking result is the same.

Flavour. Sweet to tart depending on variety, from honey-sweet (Fuji) to bracing (Granny Smith).

Aroma. Subtly floral raw; warm and concentrated when cooked.

Common uses. Pies, crumbles, strudels, tarte tatin, applesauce, chutney, slaw, salads. Cooking apples (Bramley) collapse to a purée; eating apples hold their shape in tarts and roasts.

Flavour. Sweet with a clean fruity tang; less assertive than berry jams, holds its colour beautifully.

Aroma. Bright and stone-fruit-like.

Common uses. The pastry chef's favourite glaze - warmed, sieved and brushed over fruit tarts and pastries for shine. Also a sandwich filling for layer cakes, a thumbprint-biscuit filling, and a glaze for roast ham.

Flavour. Sweet and tangy fresh; concentrated, honey-like and slightly tart when dried.

Aroma. Floral and stone-fruit-like fresh; richer and more caramelised when dried or roasted.

Common uses. Eaten fresh in summer; halved and roasted with thyme; dried into Moroccan tagines, Persian khoresh, and English fruit cakes; stewed into compotes. The kernels (after careful prep) flavour amaretto and noyaux liqueurs.

Flavour. Intensely sweet, milky and toasted - condensed milk slow-cooked to a thick caramel; richer and more buttery than dulce de leche.

Aroma. Warm, toasted milk and caramel.

Common uses. Colombian dulce de leche. Spread on toast and pancakes, stuffed into obleas (wafer sandwiches), spooned over ice cream, folded into mousses, layered between sponge cakes.

Flavour. Salt enhanced with dried herbs, spices, citrus zest or smoke - savoury with a perfumed edge.

Aroma. Carries whatever flavouring it was blended with: herbal (rosemary, sage), warm (cumin, smoked paprika), bright (lemon, lime).

Common uses. A finishing salt rather than a cooking salt. Sprinkled over grilled meats, roasted vegetables, fried eggs, popcorn, or rims of cocktail glasses. Easy to make at home by pulsing herbs with flaky salt.

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Flavour. Sulphurous and pungent raw - hence the name; mellows to a savoury onion-garlic depth when bloomed in hot oil.

Aroma. Sharply oniony when raw; rounder and more umami after cooking.

Common uses. A staple in Indian, Iranian and Afghan vegetarian cooking, especially where onions and garlic are avoided (Jain, certain religious diets). A pinch tempered in ghee at the start of dals, vegetable curries and pickles.

Flavour. Sweeter and more delicate than European shallots; mild garlic notes and a clean onion flavour.

Aroma. Mild, faintly sweet.

Common uses. The backbone of Southeast Asian aromatic pastes: Thai curry pastes, Indonesian sambals, Vietnamese marinades. Also crisped in oil to make fried shallots, the universal Southeast Asian garnish.

Flavour. Grassy, slightly sweet and faintly mineral; thicker spears are more tender, thinner ones more fibrous.

Aroma. Fresh and green, almost like cut grass.

Common uses. Roasted, steamed, grilled, blanched into salads, folded into risottos and tarts, dipped into hollandaise. White asparagus (blanched-grown, no chlorophyll) is the European spring delicacy. Brief season; freshness matters.

Flavour. Mild and slightly bitter raw; transforms into rich, custardy, smoky depth when roasted, grilled or fried.

Aroma. Faint raw; intensely smoky and sweet when charred.

Common uses. Mediterranean cooking (baba ganoush, moussaka, parmigiana), Middle Eastern dips and stews, Indian baigan bharta, Chinese fish-fragrant aubergine, Thai green curry. Salting before cooking is optional with modern varieties.

Flavour. Mild and slightly bitter raw; deeply savoury, almost meaty when cooked through.

Aroma. Subtle raw; smoky and rich when charred or roasted.

Common uses. Roasted whole for baba ganoush, sliced for moussaka and parmigiana, cubed for ratatouille and Sichuan stir-fries, stuffed for imam bayildi. Soaks up oil readily, so dry-roasting first is a useful trick.

Flavour. Mild, buttery and faintly grassy, with no sweetness; texture (creamy when ripe, hard when underripe) does most of the work.

Aroma. Subtle and clean; barely noticeable.

Common uses. Sliced into salads, mashed into guacamole, spread on toast, layered into sushi rolls, blended into smoothies and chocolate mousses, folded into ceviches. Ripens off the tree; speeds up in a paper bag with a banana.

Flavour. Rich, buttery, mild and nutty when ripe; faintly grassy when underripe.

Aroma. Subtle, lightly grassy.

Common uses. Guacamole, mashed on toast, sliced in salads, blended into smoothies and chilled soups; central to Mexican and Californian cooking.

Flavour. Salty, smoky and porky, with a deep umami the rendered fat carries everywhere it touches.

Aroma. Smoky and meaty raw; intensely savoury when frying.

Common uses. Breakfasts, BLTs, carbonara, beef stews (lardons), wrapped around fish or asparagus, broken over salads, lining a quiche.

Flavour. Mild wheaty crumb with a clean savouriness; the magic is in the crust - shattering, deeply toasted, with a faint sourness.

Aroma. Sweet bread and toasted wheat, especially within an hour of baking.

Common uses. The default French loaf for sandwiches, dipped in oil and vinegar, torn into hearty soups, sliced for crostini, or eaten with butter and ham.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Fierce Scotch bonnet heat with a fruity backbone of papaya or pineapple, sharpened by vinegar and onion.

Aroma. Tropical, vinegary and pungent.

Common uses. Splashed onto conch salad, fried fish and goat stew across the Bahamas; works as a finishing sauce or a base for marinades.

Flavour. Warm, sweet-savoury and complex - black pepper, cumin, coriander, cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg in shifting ratios.

Aroma. Heady and aromatic; the smell of Middle Eastern grill smoke.

Common uses. A pan-Arab seven-spice blend. Rubbed into lamb, beef and chicken; stirred into rice and lentil dishes; used in stews and koftas across the Levant, Iraq and the Gulf.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, savoury and slightly tangy tomato sauce coating soft white haricot beans; British tin versions are sweeter than American baked beans.

Aroma. Tomato and brown sugar; warmer when heated.

Common uses. Full English breakfast, jacket potato topping, beans on toast. Cowboy beans, Boston baked beans and beans à la Bretonne are richer, slow-cooked relatives.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Slightly bitter and metallic - never tasted directly; reacts with moisture and heat to leaven baked goods.

Aroma. Faintly chemical; negligible in the final bake.

Common uses. Cakes, scones, biscuits, pancakes, muffins, soda bread. The double-acting kind (most modern versions) works on both wet mix and heat, giving more lift.

Flavour. Sharply alkaline and slightly metallic; needs an acid (buttermilk, vinegar, lemon, cocoa) to activate.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Soda bread, gingerbread, chocolate cakes, pretzels (in the alkaline dip), tenderising tough greens, scrubbing kitchen surfaces. Bicarbonate of soda is the same thing.

Flavour. Sweet, sour and woody, with notes of figs and dark fruit; supermarket versions are sweeter and less complex than true Modena aged balsamic.

Aroma. Rich, fruity and slightly fermented.

Common uses. Salad dressings, glazes for meat and vegetables, drizzled over strawberries, reduced to a syrup for finishing. Pairs especially well with tomatoes, mozzarella and parmesan.

Flavour. Mild, slightly nutty and clean, with a faint vegetal sweetness; tinned versions are softer and milder than fresh.

Aroma. Subtle and grassy.

Common uses. Chinese stir-fries, Thai green and yellow curries, Indonesian rendang, Japanese takenoko gohan (bamboo rice), Filipino sinigang. Almost always pre-cooked when sold tinned; rinse to lose the tin flavour.

Flavour. Sweet, creamy and slightly tropical; richer and more honey-like when ripe to spotty-brown.

Aroma. Distinctive estery sweetness; deeper as the fruit ripens.

Common uses. Eaten raw, mashed into banana bread, sliced over cereal and pancakes, blended into smoothies and ice cream. Fried plantain (a relative) is a different beast for savoury cooking.

Flavour. Subtle grassy, faintly tea-like; lends a delicate herbal note to whatever cooks inside.

Aroma. Mild and green; pronounced when warmed.

Common uses. Wrapping food for steaming or grilling across South and Southeast Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America - tamales, otak-otak, lemper, bibingka, pibil. Soften over a gas flame or in hot water before folding.

Flavour. Sweeter and milder than ordinary shallots, with a clean onion edge; longer, paler and easier to slice.

Aroma. Gentle and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Anywhere a recipe calls for shallots - sauces, dressings, confit, the start of a stew. The size makes them quicker to peel than a bag of small round ones.

Flavour. Sweet and creamy, deeper and more honeyed as the skin spots; slightly tannic when underripe.

Aroma. Distinctive sweet ester smell that intensifies with ripeness.

Common uses. Eaten raw, baked into banana bread and muffins, sliced into porridge and cereal, blended into smoothies, frozen and processed into "nice cream".

Flavour. Sweet and slightly peppery, with a clove-like warmth and a faint anise edge.

Aroma. Bright and green when fresh; the smell of summer Mediterranean cooking.

Common uses. The backbone of Italian pesto and Caprese salad. Torn over pasta, tomato sauces, pizza. Thai basil (a different cultivar) goes into stir-fries and curries.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly peppery and faintly aniseed; bruises and oxidises fast.

Aroma. Distinctively bright and herbaceous - summer in a leaf.

Common uses. Torn raw over tomato salads, pizza Margherita, fresh pasta sauces; the heart of pesto; finishing aubergine parmigiana. Thai basil (a different cultivar) is licorice-forward and used in stir-fries.

Flavour. Long-grain rice with a delicate nutty, almost popcorn-like character; cooks long, fluffy and dry, never sticky.

Aroma. Pronounced fragrance even before cooking - the scent intensifies in the pan.

Common uses. The traditional rice of Indian and Pakistani cooking. Biryani, pulao, plain steamed rice, jeera rice, kheer. Aged basmati (a year or more old) cooks even longer and more separately.

Flavour. Slender long grains with a sweet, popcorn-like nuttiness; cooks dry and separate.

Aroma. Fragrant and floral; the name itself means "queen of fragrance".

Common uses. Indian biryanis, pulaos, plain steamed accompaniments; Persian chelow with tahdig. Rinse to lose excess starch; soak for the lightest grain.

Flavour. Faintly bitter and woody, with hints of menthol and pine; barely noticeable on its own but rounds and deepens a stew enormously.

Aroma. Slightly minty and resinous when crushed or simmered.

Common uses. Stocks, stews, soups, braises, pickling brines, béchamel infusions, bouquet garni. Always removed before serving; the leaf itself stays papery and inedible. Indian recipes use a related plant (tej patta), milder and slightly cinnamon-like.

Flavour. Slightly bitter, woody and menthol-edged; a background flavour rather than a foreground one.

Aroma. Resinous and faintly minty when crushed.

Common uses. Tucked into stocks, stews, braises and bolognese; part of bouquet garni; used in pickling brines. Dried leaves are stronger than they look; fresh are milder. Always removed before serving.

Flavour. Mild, crisp and clean, with a faint vegetable sweetness; eaten cooked or raw.

Aroma. Barely present; just fresh and clean.

Common uses. Pad thai, pho, bibimbap, spring rolls, Chinese stir-fries, Korean kongnamul muchim. Added at the very end of cooking so they keep their crunch.

Flavour. Crisp, mild and faintly sweet - just enough vegetable character to provide texture, with no strong taste.

Aroma. Fresh and clean.

Common uses. The same role as bean sprouts (same thing): pad thai, pho, spring rolls, stir-fries. Best added in the final 30 seconds of cooking to stay crisp.

Flavour. Creamy, faintly nutmeg-scented and savoury; the blank-canvas mother sauce of French cooking.

Aroma. Warm milk and butter, plus a whisper of bay or nutmeg.

Common uses. The base of moussaka, lasagne, cauliflower cheese, croque monsieur, mac and cheese; thinned for crêpe fillings; flavoured with cheese to become mornay.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Rich, savoury and iron-tinged; varies hugely by cut, age and breed; well-marbled steaks taste sweet and buttery from the rendered fat.

Aroma. Meaty raw; deeply roasted and caramelised when seared.

Common uses. Roasts, steaks, mince, stews, stir-fries, stocks. The default red meat across Europe and the Americas, central to dishes from Bourguignon to chilli con carne to teppanyaki.

Flavour. Deeply savoury, meaty and faintly sweet, with the body that long-simmered bones and meat give a stock.

Aroma. Warm and meaty.

Common uses. The base of French onion soup, pho bo, beef noodle soup, gravies, stews and risottos. Stock cubes and concentrates substitute in a pinch.

Flavour. Deep, beefy and richly flavoured; tougher cut from the shoulder that turns meltingly tender with long slow cooking.

Aroma. Strongly meaty when browned.

Common uses. Stews, casseroles, pot roasts, chilli, ragù bolognese, beef bourguignon, slow-braised tacos. Also ground into the best burgers for fat-to-meat ratio.

Flavour. Rich, beefy and savoury, with a depth no other cooking fat carries.

Aroma. Meaty when warmed.

Common uses. The traditional fat for British Yorkshire puddings, roast potatoes and chip-shop chips. Cheaper than butter, higher smoke point than olive oil, and irreplaceable for that proper roast-dinner crunch.

Flavour. Mild and clean, with a soft, almost custardy texture; the most tender cut on a cow, the leanest, and somewhat low on flavour compared with rib-eye or sirloin.

Aroma. Subtle meaty smell, intensifying when seared.

Common uses. Châteaubriand, beef wellington, tournedos Rossini, beef carpaccio, steak tartare. Worth pairing with a punchy sauce or accompaniment since the meat itself is delicate.

Flavour. Rich and savoury; the fat content (5-20%) shapes the dish entirely - leaner for kofta, fattier for burgers and bolognese.

Aroma. Meaty raw; deeply roasted when browned in a hot pan.

Common uses. Bolognese, burgers, meatballs, koftas, chilli con carne, cottage pie, meatloaf, taco filling, lasagne. The everyday minced meat across most cuisines.

Flavour. Rich, beefy and well-marbled; the fat through the meat melts and bastes the muscle as it cooks, giving a juicy, deeply savoury steak.

Aroma. Meaty raw; intensely roasted when seared.

Common uses. Pan-fried or grilled as a steak, sliced for Korean galbi or Japanese teppanyaki, used in tagliata. Worth the price for its forgiving fat content.

Flavour. Intensely beefy and rich; the gelatin in the connective tissue gives long-cooked dishes a glossy, full-bodied sauce.

Aroma. Deeply meaty when slowly braised.

Common uses. Osso buco (with veal traditionally; beef shank works), Vietnamese pho, Chinese-braised beef shank, Korean galbitang. Needs hours of slow cooking; quick methods leave it tough.

Flavour. Rich and intensely beefy; tough cut that turns silky over hours of cooking, with collagen breaking down into mouth-coating gelatin.

Aroma. Deeply meaty when braising.

Common uses. Slow-braised beef bourguignon, stifado, osso buco-style dishes, beef stew, ragù. The braising liquid becomes a glossy sauce thanks to the dissolved connective tissue.

Flavour. Balanced between tenderness and beefy flavour; less marbled than rib-eye, more flavour than fillet.

Aroma. Meaty raw; intensely savoury when seared hot and rested.

Common uses. Pan-seared steaks, sliced for stir-fries and stroganoff, used in steak sandwiches and beef carpaccio. The everyday weeknight steak cut.

Flavour. Deeply savoury and meaty, with a slight sweetness if roasted bones were used.

Aroma. Rich, warm and meaty.

Common uses. The base of French onion soup, beef stews, gravies, demi-glace, risottos. Roasting the bones first gives the deepest colour and flavour. Cubes and pastes substitute but lack body.

Flavour. Concentrated savoury saltiness with mild beefy notes; far saltier per volume than fresh stock, so seasoning needs adjustment.

Aroma. Strong, slightly herby and meaty when dissolved.

Common uses. Stand-in for fresh beef stock in stews, gravies and braises when there's no time to simmer bones. Crumbled into mince for a quick savoury boost.

Flavour. Bitter from hops, sweet from malt; body shaped by yeast and grain. Ranges from light lager to dark stout.

Aroma. Yeasty and grainy, with floral or citrus notes from hops in pale styles.

Common uses. Battering fish, braising chicken or beef (carbonnade flamande, boeuf à la bière), marinades that tenderise meat, glazing brats, deglazing fond.

Flavour. Earthy and sweet, with a faint mineral tang; the sweetness deepens with roasting.

Aroma. Earthy raw; concentrated and almost candied when roasted.

Common uses. Borscht, roasted beetroot salad with goat cheese, pickled beets, vinaigrettes, beetroot risotto, raw grated in slaws. The greens are edible too - cook like chard.

Flavour. Pungent, intensely savoury, salty and fermented; a small knob underpins a whole curry paste.

Aroma. Strong, fishy and oceanic when raw; mellows once toasted.

Common uses. Malaysian and Singaporean sambals, nasi lemak, laksa pastes, asam pedas. Always toast over flame before pounding into a paste.

Flavour. Fiery and complex, with chilli heat layered over fenugreek, ginger, cardamom, cumin, cloves and cinnamon.

Aroma. Hot, sweet-spiced and deeply aromatic.

Common uses. Ethiopian and Eritrean spice mix. The backbone of doro wat (chicken stew), misir wat (red lentils), kitfo (raw beef). Bloomed in butter or oil before the other ingredients go in.

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Flavour. Fierce chilli heat with deep, complex warmth from cinnamon, cardamom, fenugreek and ginger.

Aroma. Toasty, hot and unmistakably aromatic.

Common uses. The defining seasoning of Ethiopian cooking - doro wat, misir wat, sega wat, kitfo. Toasted in spiced butter (niter kibbeh) to release oils.

Flavour. Mildly nutty and faintly sweet, with a chewy bite from the partially-milled outer layer; less assertive than wild rice but more textured than basmati.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly toasted when cooked.

Common uses. The everyday rice of Bhutan, served with ema datshi (chillies in cheese sauce) and other Bhutanese dishes. Cooks in 20 minutes; holds its colour after cooking.

Flavour. Sharply alkaline and slightly metallic on its own; needs an acid partner (buttermilk, lemon, vinegar) to leaven baked goods.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Soda bread, chocolate cakes, gingerbread, brownies, ramen broths, alkalising the boil for pretzels. Also tenderises tough greens and neutralises curry-stained Tupperware.

Flavour. Sharp, fiery heat (50,000-100,000 SHU) with a fruity backbone; small, tapered and pointed.

Aroma. Bright, fruity and pungent.

Common uses. Thai, Vietnamese and Indonesian cooking - som tam, tom yum, sambals, pho. Pierced whole into a broth for aroma without overwhelming heat, or chopped fine for serious fire.

Flavour. Intense fruity heat - small and tapered, much hotter than they look. The fresh red and green versions are equally pungent.

Aroma. Sharp, bright and fruity.

Common uses. Thai curries, Southeast Asian sambals and dipping sauces, African piri-piri marinades. A single chilli is plenty for most dishes; deseed to cut heat without losing flavour.

Flavour. Earthy, slightly sweet and mildly mineral; firmer-skinned than other beans, with a soft creamy interior.

Aroma. Earthy when cooking; richer once seasoned with cumin and garlic.

Common uses. Latin American cooking - feijoada, refried beans, rice and beans, Mexican burritos and tacos. Soak overnight and simmer with onion and bay; dried beats tinned for flavour, tinned saves an evening.

Flavour. Slightly bitter, peppery and oniony - sometimes confused with nigella seeds (kalonji), which are unrelated; true black caraway is more like caraway with a darker edge.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly camphoric.

Common uses. Indian and Persian breads and meat dishes; sprinkled over flatbreads, naans and Turkish pide. Sometimes labelled "kala jeera" or "shahi jeera" in Indian shops.

Flavour. Smoky, resinous and camphor-like, with a cooling menthol edge; deeper and earthier than green cardamom.

Aroma. Intensely smoky from being dried over open fires; piney and warm.

Common uses. Indian rice dishes (biryani, pulao), garam masala, slow-cooked meat curries, Sichuan braises. Lightly bruise the pod to release oils; remove before serving.

Flavour. Smoky, woody and camphoric, with a cooling finish; bigger and bolder than green cardamom, with a wholly different role.

Aroma. Distinctively smoky from drying over flames.

Common uses. Indian biryanis, slow-cooked meat curries (rogan josh, nihari), Tibetan and Nepalese cooking, Sichuan braises. Crack and add whole; fish out before serving.

Flavour. Tangy, smoky and slightly fermented, with a deep sourness that's nothing like fresh lime juice.

Aroma. Earthy and faintly fermented, almost smoky.

Common uses. Persian and Iraqi cooking - khoresh gheymeh, ghormeh sabzi, fish stews. Pierce the dried lime so the flavour leaches into the broth, then fish it out before serving (or eat for a sour hit). Also called loomi or noomi basra.

Flavour. Distinctively sour, slightly fermented and earthy; the long sun-drying concentrates everything and adds a smoky note.

Aroma. Funky and citrusy, like a lime that's seen the world.

Common uses. Persian khoresh and ghormeh sabzi, Iraqi fish stews, Gulf rice dishes. Pierce or crack each lime before adding so the flavour permeates the broth. Powdered versions are sharper.

Flavour. Sharp, pungent and faintly nutty; release a bitter mustardy heat when crushed or bloomed in hot oil.

Aroma. Pop and crackle in hot oil, smelling slightly sulphurous; mellows to a nutty warmth.

Common uses. Tempering oil at the start of South Indian dals and vegetable dishes, in Bengali fish curries, in pickling brines. Toast in oil until they pop - that's when the flavour comes out.

Flavour. Rich, salty and faintly bitter, with a meaty depth; ripeness brings out the wine-like fruit notes.

Aroma. Briny and slightly fermented.

Common uses. Greek salads, tapenade, niçoise, pissaladière, pasta puttanesca, pizzas, Moroccan tagines. Kalamata are the classic eating olive; oil-cured wrinkly ones are intensely savoury.

Flavour. Hot, sharp and woody, with floral and citrus notes when freshly ground; the world's most ubiquitous spice.

Aroma. Sharp and aromatic when ground; flat once stale.

Common uses. Universal seasoning - on steaks, in soups, in spice blends, in pasta sauces (cacio e pepe), in pickling brines, in baking. Always grind fresh; pre-ground loses everything within weeks.

Flavour. Sharp, hot and woody, with floral and citrus undertones; whole corns hold their flavour for years, ground pepper for weeks.

Aroma. Pungent and aromatic when cracked.

Common uses. Cracked over steaks, into stocks and pickling brines, ground into masalas and rubs, whole in mulled wine and brines. Tellicherry corns are larger and more aromatic.

Flavour. Deep, smoky and slightly sweet, with a balsamic-like complexity; Chinkiang from Jiangsu is the most famous, made from glutinous rice and aged.

Aroma. Funky and fermented; less sharp than white rice vinegar.

Common uses. Chinese dipping sauces (especially for dumplings), Sichuan dishes, hot-and-sour soup, sweet-and-sour sauces. A spoonful adds depth to stir-fries.

Flavour. Eggy, sulphurous and slightly mineral; the smell is more striking than the taste.

Aroma. Pungently sulphurous - intentionally egg-like.

Common uses. Indian chaat masala, vegan "egg" dishes (tofu scramble, vegan mayo, vegan omelettes), Indian street snacks like pani puri and bhel puri. Also known as kala namak.

Flavour. Nuttier and slightly more bitter than white sesame, with a deeper, almost cocoa-like edge.

Aroma. Toasty and nutty when warmed.

Common uses. Japanese furikake and sesame-encrusted tuna, Chinese sweet desserts (black sesame paste, dumplings), gomashio, sprinkled over rice or noodles, ground into a dressing for spinach goma-ae.

Flavour. Bitterly sweet and intensely molasses-rich, with burnt-sugar notes; British equivalent of blackstrap molasses.

Aroma. Deep, sticky and slightly smoky.

Common uses. Parkin, treacle tart (with golden syrup), gingerbread, sticky toffee pudding, BBQ rubs and bean dishes, marinades for ribs. Use sparingly - the bitterness builds.

Flavour. Creamy, faintly nutty and earthy, with a subtle vegetable sweetness; thinner-skinned and quicker-cooking than kidney or pinto beans.

Aroma. Mild and earthy.

Common uses. Hoppin' John, West African red-red, Indian chawli usal, Brazilian acarajé, Greek louvi salad. Soak briefly (or skip the soak for quick cooking).

Flavour. Sweet and slightly tart, with a winey, complex depth; wilder ones taste of woodland and bramble.

Aroma. Jammy and fruity, especially when warmed.

Common uses. Crumbles, jams, fools, ice creams, sauces for game (especially venison), in summer pudding. Pair beautifully with apple and almond.

Flavour. Warm, slightly sweet and faintly bitter - cousin to nutmeg (same plant, different part), but more delicate.

Aroma. Aromatic and warm, more complex than nutmeg.

Common uses. Béchamel and Mornay sauces, potted shrimp, doughnuts and Bath buns, Indian garam masala, mulled wines. The lacy blades simmer whole and are removed; ground mace works too.

Flavour. Sweet, clean and buttery; without the tannic skin, the flavour is pure almond.

Aroma. Mild raw; intensely nutty when toasted.

Common uses. Marzipan, frangipane, macarons, ground for almond flour, sliced as a garnish for trout amandine or rice pilafs, blended into smoothies and dukkah. The base for almond milk.

Flavour. Concentrated coconut fat and pulp, sold as a solid block that melts into hot liquid; richer than tinned coconut milk.

Aroma. Sweet, tropical, intensely coconut.

Common uses. Caribbean rice and peas, Sri Lankan and South Indian curries, Goan vindaloo. Grate or chop and stir into hot stock to make instant coconut milk on demand.

Flavour. Sharp, tangy and pungent, with veins of mould adding salty, slightly bitter complexity; stilton is creamy, gorgonzola softer and sweeter, roquefort sharper.

Aroma. Pungent, ammonia-edged and unmistakable.

Common uses. Crumbled over salads (Waldorf, wedge salads), melted into pasta sauces, stirred into mashed potato, paired with figs and pears, in burgers, on cheeseboards.

Flavour. Nutty and earthier than yellow corn; faintly sweet with a mineral edge.

Aroma. Toasted maize.

Common uses. Pueblo and Hopi cooking - blue corn mush, atole, blue-corn pancakes and tortillas, piki bread.

Flavour. Mild and slightly sweet, with crisp white stems and tender dark leaves; the baby version is more delicate.

Aroma. Fresh and green; subtle.

Common uses. Chinese stir-fries (especially with garlic and oyster sauce), ramen toppings, congee garnish, halved and grilled, in dumpling fillings. Cooks in seconds; add at the end.

Flavour. Plump, short-grain Spanish rice with the unusual property of absorbing three times its volume in liquid without going mushy; mild and slightly nutty.

Aroma. Subtle starchy aroma; richer once the sofrito hits it.

Common uses. The gold standard for paella - holds shape and absorbs the saffron-tomato broth. Calasparra is a close substitute. Don't stir once the rice is in; that's where the socarrat comes from.

Flavour. Deep, smoky, intensely savoury and umami-rich; shavings of dried, fermented and smoked skipjack tuna.

Aroma. Smoky and oceanic.

Common uses. The base of dashi (with kombu), Japan's foundational stock; sprinkled over okonomiyaki and takoyaki (they "dance" from the heat); folded into onigiri filling. Also called katsuobushi.

Flavour. Nutty, creamy and slightly sweet, with a tender skin that holds shape through long simmering; the pink-and-cream marbling fades on cooking.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly chestnut-like.

Common uses. Italian pasta e fagioli, ribollita, minestrone, Tuscan stews. Beautiful raw in late summer, dried for winter cooking. Cranberry beans is the American name.

Flavour. A subtle herbal backbone of parsley, thyme, bay and sometimes peppercorns or rosemary; flavours stocks and stews without overwhelming.

Aroma. Faint and herbal when raw; warmer when simmered.

Common uses. Tied with kitchen string or wrapped in muslin; added to stocks, soups, stews and braises and pulled out before serving. The aromatic heart of French slow cooking.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, vanillin and oaky, with hints of caramel and corn; American whisky aged in charred new oak barrels.

Aroma. Sweet, woody and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Splashed into BBQ sauces, used in pecan pie, glazes for ham and salmon, sticky bourbon-glazed ribs, classic cocktails (old fashioned, mint julep). A tablespoon adds depth without dominating.

Flavour. Sharply sour, almost biting raw; collapses into a fluffy, tart purée when cooked, with no residual sweetness without added sugar.

Aroma. Bright and green when fresh; deeply apple-y when stewed.

Common uses. The British cooking apple par excellence - apple sauce, crumbles, pies, baked apples, chutneys, charlottes. The variety to add sugar to, not to eat raw.

Flavour. Warm, sweet and grape-y, with vanillin and oak from barrel ageing; cognac and armagnac are regional brandies with their own character.

Aroma. Floral, fruity and warmly alcoholic.

Common uses. Flambéed at the start of pan sauces, splashed into Christmas pudding and fruitcake batter, in cocktails (sidecar, sazerac), in pâtés and terrines, in cream sauces for steak.

Flavour. Mild, wheaten, lightly sweet from the natural sugars; ranges from soft white sandwich loaves to chewy sourdough and dark rye.

Aroma. Warm baked-wheat, faintly malty.

Common uses. Sandwiches, toast, croutons, breadcrumbs, panades and binders in meatballs, soaking up stews and curries, the base of bruschetta and crostini; stale bread becomes panzanella, ribollita, French toast and bread pudding.

Flavour. Mild and neutral; toasted gives a deeper nutty character. Fresh ones are softer and absorb more moisture than dried.

Aroma. Wheaty when fresh; toasty when browned.

Common uses. Coating for schnitzel and chicken Kiev, binding meatballs and burgers, topping macaroni cheese and gratin, in stuffing, bound into a panade. Panko (Japanese) are coarser and crisper.

Flavour. Mild wheaty taste; higher protein (12-13%) makes more gluten, giving chewy, structured breads.

Aroma. Subtle wheaty smell raw; deeply baked when in the oven.

Common uses. Sourdough, pizza dough, bagels, pretzels, French loaves, pasta. The stronger gluten matters - regular plain flour gives a softer crumb and less rise. Strong white flour and bread flour are usually interchangeable.

Flavour. Mild and neutral, sometimes faintly toasted; the texture (fine vs coarse) and freshness (fresh vs dried) matter more than flavour.

Aroma. Wheaty raw; nuttily toasted when fried or baked.

Common uses. Coating cutlets, gratin topping, binding meatballs and burgers, stuffing, bound into panades. Panko gives the crispest fried coating; British dried breadcrumbs (sometimes orange) suit fish fingers and old-school schnitzel.

Flavour. Buttery and slightly bitter young; mealier and starchier as they mature; the inner bean is best after the tough skin is slipped off.

Aroma. Fresh and green.

Common uses. British pea-and-broad-bean spring salads, Egyptian ful medames (stewed dried), Spanish habas con jamón, falafel mixes, Roman vignarola. The Italian fava is the same thing.

Flavour. Earthy and slightly bitter raw; sweetens and develops nutty caramelised notes when roasted.

Aroma. Faintly sulphurous when overcooked; mild and pleasant when handled well.

Common uses. Steamed, roasted, stir-fried with garlic, pickled, blended into soup, in pasta sauces (orecchiette with broccoli rabe), char-grilled with chilli and lemon. Tenderstem and purple sprouting are slimmer relatives.

Flavour. Mild, earthy and slightly nutty; hold their shape better than red lentils but soften more than Puy.

Aroma. Earthy when cooking.

Common uses. Everyday lentil soups, dals, salads, vegetarian shepherd's pie, mejadra. Don't need pre-soaking; cook in 25-30 minutes.

Flavour. Pungent and sharp raw; sweet, mellow and deeply savoury when caramelised; the everyday cooking onion.

Aroma. Eye-stinging raw; sweet and rich when slowly cooked.

Common uses. Almost every savoury cuisine's starting point - fried in fat as the base of stews, sauces and curries; raw in salsas; caramelised onto a steak; pickled in vinegar. Yellow onions in America are the same thing.

Flavour. Sweet with toffee and molasses depth; light brown is mild, dark brown more pronounced. Muscovado is even richer.

Aroma. Warm and treacly.

Common uses. Baking (especially gingerbread, chocolate chip cookies and brownies), BBQ rubs and glazes, sticky toffee pudding, banana bread, marinades. The molasses also keeps baked goods softer.

Flavour. Bittersweet, intensely caramelised and salty; concentrated burnt sugar with seasoning.

Aroma. Deep burnt-caramel smell.

Common uses. Caribbean cooking - Jamaican brown stew chicken, oxtail, jerk marinades; adds the deep mahogany colour without changing flavour much. Kitchen Bouquet and Maggi browning sauce are common brands.

Flavour. Earthy and slightly bitter; sweetens and chars beautifully when roasted, becomes funky-sulphurous if overboiled.

Aroma. Strongly cruciferous when overcooked; nutty when caramelised.

Common uses. Christmas-dinner staple in Britain (boiled or roasted), shredded raw in slaws and warm salads, halved and seared with bacon, glazed with maple syrup. High roast heat is their friend.

Flavour. Like spaghetti with a hollow centre - the channel holds onto sauce, giving every forkful more flavour.

Aroma. Wheaty raw; al dente when cooked properly.

Common uses. Bucatini all'amatriciana (the classic, with guanciale, tomato and pecorino), cacio e pepe, alle vongole. The hollow centre takes more cooking time than regular spaghetti.

Flavour. Rich, milky and slightly tangy; tender and creamy in a way cow-milk mozzarella never quite matches.

Aroma. Sweet and fresh, slightly grassy.

Common uses. Caprese salad, pizza margherita (especially the wood-fired Neapolitan kind), insalata caprese with peaches and basil, torn over pasta, baked into eggs en cocotte. Always serve at room temperature.

Flavour. Tangy, peppery and butter-rich; cayenne heat softened by melted butter and a vinegar edge.

Aroma. Cayenne pepper and warm butter, with a sharp vinegar lift.

Common uses. Tossing fried chicken wings, dressing tenders and sandwiches, stirring through stuffed baked potatoes or cauliflower.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Nutty, lightly toasty, with a pleasant chewy bite even when fully hydrated.

Aroma. Warm-grain, faintly malty.

Common uses. Tabbouleh, kibbeh, kisir, mujadara, Middle Eastern pilafs. Finer grades soak in water rather than boil.

Flavour. Nutty, lightly toasty; the standard precooked-cracked wheat sold as bulgur.

Aroma. Warm-grain, faintly malty.

Common uses. Interchangeable with bulgur in tabbouleh, kibbeh, kisir, mujadara and pilafs.

Flavour. Rich and creamy, faintly sweet, with a clean dairy taste.

Aroma. Soft and milky cold; nutty and toasted when browned (beurre noisette).

Common uses. The base of countless sauces (hollandaise, beurre blanc, brown butter), in pastry for flakiness, finishing risotto for gloss, frying eggs gently, and as the heart of most baked goods.

Flavour. Creamy, buttery and mild, with a soft, almost custardy texture; the largest of the dried white beans.

Aroma. Subtle and starchy.

Common uses. Greek gigantes plaki (baked beans), British butter beans on toast, Spanish judiones de la granja, Caribbean stews. Bigger and creamier than cannellini; lima beans are a close cousin.

Flavour. Tangy, lightly thick and creamy; modern cultured buttermilk is tart in a way fresh milk isn't.

Aroma. Lactic and slightly fermented.

Common uses. Marinade for fried chicken (tenderises and seasons), pancakes and Irish soda bread (the acid activates the bicarb), ranch dressing, biscuits, chilled summer soups (Hungarian hideg gyümölcsleves).

Flavour. Sweet and nutty with a slight earthy edge; deep orange flesh that's drier and denser than pumpkin.

Aroma. Earthy raw; caramel-sweet when roasted.

Common uses. Roasted with sage and chilli, puréed into soup, in risottos and pasta sauces, in curries, stuffed and baked. Holds its shape better than most squashes.

Flavour. Mild, earthy and slightly meaty; the everyday white mushroom most cuisines reach for.

Aroma. Subtle and earthy raw; deeper and meatier when fried.

Common uses. Sliced into pasta sauces and risottos, sautéed with garlic, in stews and pies, raw in salads, in stir-fries, on pizza. Brown chestnut mushrooms (same species, different stage) have more flavour.

Flavour. Mild heat with deep, smoky, slightly fruity notes; the colour-rich, low-heat dried chilli of southern India.

Aroma. Earthy and faintly fruity.

Common uses. South Indian sambars, rasams and pickles; Mangalorean chicken sukka; ground into spice mixes. The chilli that gives biryanis and curries their red colour without too much heat.

Flavour. Smoky and mildly hot, with a deep red colour; less spicy than guntur or kashmiri, more flavoured than colour-only chillies.

Aroma. Earthy and fruity, faintly smoky.

Common uses. Karnataka and South Indian cooking - sambar, rasam, bisi bele bath, Mangalorean curries. Often paired with guntur chillies to add heat without losing colour.

Flavour. Mild, slightly peppery and faintly sweet; sweetens further when slowly cooked or fermented.

Aroma. Subtle and grassy raw; sulphurous if overcooked.

Common uses. Coleslaw, sauerkraut, kimchi, stuffed cabbage rolls, bubble and squeak, stir-fries, soups (cabbage soup, minestrone), pickles. White, green, red and Savoy all behave slightly differently.

Flavour. Warm, smoky and peppery, with paprika depth and garlic-onion savouriness; varying heat depending on the cayenne content.

Aroma. Spicy and pungent, with herbal undertones from thyme and oregano.

Common uses. Louisiana classics - blackened fish, dirty rice, jambalaya, gumbo, étouffée. Rubbed onto chicken, prawns and pork; sprinkled into roux for added punch.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; lower in protein (7-9%) than plain flour, giving cakes a tender, fine crumb.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Sponge cakes, angel food cake, chiffon cake, pound cake - anywhere you want delicate texture. Substitute by replacing 2 tablespoons of plain flour per cup with cornflour.

Flavour. Sharp, tart and floral, halfway between lime and tangerine; a Filipino citrus with a unique bittersweet edge.

Aroma. Bright, citrusy and slightly perfumed.

Common uses. Filipino marinades (chicken inasal, kinilaw), dipping sauces (sawsawan), pancit, calamansi-based desserts. Substitute with equal parts lime and orange juice.

Flavour. Intensely sweet with a faint bitter citrus edge; the peel's natural oils survive the candying.

Aroma. Sugary and citrus-perfumed.

Common uses. Christmas cake, panettone, stollen, cassata Siciliana, hot cross buns, fruit cakes. The candying preserves it for long storage.

Flavour. Sweet with the fragrant bitterness of orange peel preserved in sugar; complex and slightly chewy.

Aroma. Concentrated orange and caramelised sugar.

Common uses. Christmas cakes, panettone, stollen, chocolate dipping (orangettes), folded into ice creams and sponges (biscuit à l'orange). Quality matters - cheap versions are tough and overly sweet.

Flavour. Mild, slightly bitter and buttery, with a waxy texture; never eaten raw (mildly toxic) - always cooked.

Aroma. Faintly nutty and oily.

Common uses. Indonesian and Malaysian curry pastes (rendang, gulai, kari), Indonesian sambals - they thicken sauces and add body. Macadamia nuts are the closest substitute.

Flavour. Creamy, mild and slightly nutty, with thin skins and a soft, almost custardy interior when cooked.

Aroma. Subtle and earthy.

Common uses. Tuscan ribollita, pasta e fagioli, Italian white bean salads, hummus-style purées, Spanish potajes. Tinned work well; dried benefit from an overnight soak.

Flavour. Sharp, briny and slightly floral, with a faint mustard-like piquancy; the unopened flower buds of the caper bush, pickled.

Aroma. Briny and tangy.

Common uses. Puttanesca, salsa verde, tartare sauce, vitello tonnato, piccata, niçoise salads, dressings, smoked salmon canapés. Drain and rinse to soften the saltiness.

Flavour. Punchy, briny and sharply herbal; the brine carries the vinegar tang into whatever they're added to.

Aroma. Vinegary and slightly floral.

Common uses. Pasta puttanesca, chicken piccata, tartare sauce, salade niçoise, salsa verde. Drain before using; the brine itself can flavour a dressing or pan sauce.

Flavour. Warm, faintly liquorice-like and slightly bitter; an essential central and eastern European spice.

Aroma. Anise-edged with a deeper, earthier note than fennel.

Common uses. Rye bread, sauerkraut, German pork roasts, Hungarian goulash, harissa, Tunisian tabil. Toasted whole seeds release the most flavour.

Flavour. Warm and faintly liquorice, with a bitter edge and a long aromatic finish; the foundation of central European baking.

Aroma. Anise-and-earth, intensifies when toasted.

Common uses. Rye bread, soda bread, sauerkraut, German pork stews, Hungarian goulash, North African tabil and harissa. Crushed lightly to release oils before adding to dough.

Flavour. Intensely aromatic, sweet and slightly camphor-like, with citrus and floral notes; one of the most expensive spices.

Aroma. Floral, eucalyptus-edged and warm.

Common uses. Indian masalas, garam masala, biryani, kheer, Scandinavian breads (cardamom buns), Arabic coffee, chai tea, Persian rice dishes. Use whole pods or freshly-ground seeds.

Flavour. Bright, floral and warm with a cooling menthol edge; green pods are sweeter, black pods are smoky.

Aroma. Intensely aromatic; releases when crushed.

Common uses. Tucked whole into biryani, pulao, masala chai, mulled wine, Persian khoresht. Bruise the pod to release oils; fish out before serving (or eat carefully - the husks are tough).

Flavour. Concentrated cardamom flavour without the husk; potent and immediately aromatic.

Aroma. Pure floral cardamom intensity.

Common uses. Ground for pastries, used in spice mixes, infused into milk for kheer and rice pudding. Three pods give roughly one teaspoon of crushed seeds.

Flavour. Earthy, golden-yellow and turmeric-forward, with a moderate heat and notes of fenugreek and cumin.

Aroma. Warm, turmeric-rich and slightly herbal.

Common uses. Trinidadian curry goat and curry chicken, Jamaican curry, Guyanese roti fillings. Toasted in oil at the start of cooking to bloom the spices.

Flavour. Herbal, garlicky and grassy, with the punch of culantro (chadon beni) and Scotch bonnet.

Aroma. Pungent and herbaceous - the smell of Trinidadian kitchens.

Common uses. Marinade base for stews, curries, chicken, fish and rice dishes across Trinidad, Guyana and Tobago. Blended fresh in batches and frozen in portions.

Flavour. Sweet and earthy raw, deeper and more concentrated when roasted or caramelised.

Aroma. Mild and grassy raw; sweet and slightly toasty when cooked.

Common uses. One leg of the holy trinity (with onion and celery) in French mirepoix and Italian soffritto. Stews, soups, stocks, slaws, roasts, and the basis of many baby food and cake recipes.

Flavour. Sweet and earthy raw; deepens to caramel-sweetness when roasted or slow-cooked.

Aroma. Faintly grassy raw; sweet and toasty when caramelised.

Common uses. A leg of mirepoix and soffritto, in stews, slaws, pickles, soups, roasted whole or julienned, juiced. The greens are edible too - chop into pesto or salads.

Flavour. Sweet, creamy and buttery, with a subtle richness that comes from the natural oils.

Aroma. Mild raw; deeply nutty when toasted.

Common uses. Cashew chicken, Indian kormas (blended into the sauce), Thai curries, granola, trail mix. The half form scatters more evenly than whole nuts.

Flavour. Soft, sweet and buttery, with much less tannin than other nuts; rich and slightly sweet from the natural oils.

Aroma. Mild raw; intensely roasted-nutty when toasted.

Common uses. Stir-fries, Indian kormas and pasanda (blended into creamy sauces), trail mixes, raw vegan "cheese", cashew cream, cashew butter, ice creams.

Flavour. Creamy, mildly sweet and rich; the silkiest thickener in Indian cooking.

Aroma. Subtle and buttery.

Common uses. Stirred into Mughlai curries, kormas, pasanda and shahi paneer to thicken and enrich the sauce. Blend soaked raw cashews with a little water for homemade.

Flavour. Sweet, creamy and buttery, with a soft texture (vs almonds or hazelnuts); roasted, they take on a deep nutty richness.

Aroma. Mild and faintly sweet.

Common uses. Stir-fries, curries (cashew chicken, korma), trail mixes, soaked and blended for vegan "cheese" and cream, ground into nut butters, sprinkled into rice pilafs.

Flavour. Mild, starchy and faintly sweet; close to potato but denser and slightly waxier.

Aroma. Earthy raw; subtly sweet when cooked.

Common uses. Boiled, fried, mashed; in Caribbean and West African stews, Latin American dishes (yuca frita, sancocho), Indonesian tape singkong. Cousin to tapioca (made from cassava starch).

Flavour. Warm, sweet and slightly more pungent than cinnamon - cassia is the everyday "cinnamon" in supermarket spice racks.

Aroma. Warmly aromatic, more robust than true Ceylon cinnamon.

Common uses. Indian and Chinese cooking - biryani, pulao, mulled drinks, Chinese five-spice. Holds up to long cooking better than true cinnamon, so common in slow-cooked dishes.

Flavour. Pure sweet - no caramel or molasses notes; the finer grain dissolves faster than granulated.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. British baking favourite - sponges, meringues, pavlovas, lemon curd, drinks, sprinkled over fruit. Same as US "superfine sugar"; granulated sugar pulsed briefly substitutes.

Flavour. Mild, slightly nutty and faintly sweet; develops deep caramel notes when roasted or charred.

Aroma. Subtle and earthy raw; sulphurous when overcooked.

Common uses. Cauliflower cheese, aloo gobi, riced as a low-carb base, whole roasted with spices, in soups, blitzed into mash, pickled. The leaves are edible too.

Flavour. Mild and nutty, with deeper caramel notes when roasted; the bite-sized form of cauliflower.

Aroma. Earthy and subtle; intensifies with browning.

Common uses. Roasted with cumin and chilli, blanched into salads, dipped into batter for pakora, stirred into curries, popped into stir-fries. Cut to even size for uniform cooking.

Flavour. Fiery and direct, with a clean heat and a touch of fruit; less complex than chipotle or kashmiri but reliably hot.

Aroma. Sharp and pungent.

Common uses. Cajun and Creole cooking, hot sauces, deviled eggs, masala mixes, dry rubs for grilled meats. A pinch lifts a Bloody Mary or a chocolate dessert.

Flavour. Hot and direct, with minimal smoke or fruit - just clean fire.

Aroma. Sharp and pungent when freshly ground.

Common uses. Dry rubs, jerk seasoning, Cajun spice mixes, Mexican cooking. Use sparingly - ¼ teaspoon adds noticeable heat. The whole dried chilli of the same name is rare in shops.

Flavour. Earthy and faintly nutty, with the green-pepper celery note in a denser, sweeter form.

Aroma. Mildly celery-like, more earthy than the stalk.

Common uses. Celeriac mash and purée, celeriac rémoulade (raw grated in mustardy mayo), Scandinavian root-vegetable bakes, soup. Trim heavily - the knobby skin hides dirt.

Flavour. Clean and slightly bitter, with a green-pepper note and a noticeable salt-savouriness.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy, almost saline.

Common uses. A foundational aromatic in mirepoix and Cajun trinity (with onion and pepper). Adds savoury depth to stocks, stews and soups; eaten raw with peanut butter or in Waldorf salad.

Flavour. Salty and faintly bitter, with a vegetable celery edge; the smell of a good Bloody Mary.

Aroma. Celery seed and salt.

Common uses. Bloody Marys (rimmed on the glass), Chicago hot dogs, deviled eggs, potato salad, Old Bay seasoning, slaws. Make at home by blitzing celery seeds with fine salt.

Flavour. Concentrated celery flavour, slightly bitter and earthy; tiny but punchy.

Aroma. Pronounced celery scent, intensified by toasting.

Common uses. Pickle brines, coleslaw dressings, Old Bay seasoning, potato salad, brisket rubs, Bloody Mary mix. Crush lightly before adding to release flavour.

Flavour. Clean and slightly salty-savoury, with a green-pepper edge; the everyday celery stick.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy.

Common uses. A leg of mirepoix and Cajun trinity; raw with peanut butter, in salads (Waldorf), tuna mayo sandwiches, stuffed with cream cheese, blitzed into juice.

Flavour. Crisp and slightly salty-savoury, with a clean herbal note from the leaves.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy.

Common uses. Mirepoix base, Cajun trinity, in stocks and stews, raw in slaws, juiced, stuffed with cream cheese or peanut butter as a snack.

Flavour. Crisp, fresh and faintly bitter, with a saline edge; the whole-celery-piece form.

Aroma. Subtly grassy.

Common uses. Mirepoix and soffritto, in stocks, soups and stews, raw with dips. Strip the tough outer strings with a peeler before chopping fine.

Flavour. Crisp and slightly salty, with a green-vegetable freshness.

Aroma. Subtly herbaceous.

Common uses. The mirepoix base for stocks and stews, raw with dips or peanut butter, in slaws, sliced into salads. Peel the outer strings for better mouthfeel.

Flavour. Tangy, salty and slightly sulphurous from black salt; balanced by cumin, ginger and amchur (dried mango) for a sharp-sour edge.

Aroma. Distinctly funky and tangy thanks to the black salt.

Common uses. Sprinkled over Indian street snacks (chaat, bhel puri, pani puri, samosas), fruit salads (yes, fruit), grilled meats, and pakoras. The finishing dust that makes street food taste like street food.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Pungent and herbaceous, similar to coriander but stronger and more saw-toothed; the Caribbean herb known elsewhere as culantro.

Aroma. Intensely fresh, deeper and more astringent than coriander.

Common uses. Trinidadian green seasoning, Caribbean stews and marinades, sofrito-style bases across Latin America (where it's called recao or culantro), Vietnamese pho garnish.

Flavour. Nutty and earthy, with a hearty texture that holds shape; the split, husked, dried chickpea (Bengal gram).

Aroma. Mildly nutty and starchy.

Common uses. Indian dals (palak dal, chana dal tadka), South Indian sambar, North Indian dishes, ground into besan-style flour, used in tempering for crunch.

Flavour. Sharp, tangy and savoury; sharpness builds with age - mild cheddar is creamy, mature is bitey and crystalline.

Aroma. Rich, slightly nutty and lactic.

Common uses. Cheese on toast, mac and cheese, grilled cheese sandwiches, cheeseburgers, in soufflés and gratins, paired with apples and chutney on a cheeseboard.

Flavour. A vast category - fresh and milky (mozzarella, ricotta), nutty and aged (cheddar, gouda), pungent (blue, washed-rind), salty and brined (feta, halloumi). The general descriptor when a recipe lets the cook choose.

Aroma. Ranges from sweet and lactic in fresh cheeses to barnyardy and ammoniated in aged ones.

Common uses. Melted into sauces, sprinkled on pasta and pizza, grated into doughs, sliced into sandwiches and salads, eaten with bread and fruit; the term covers anything from a soft fresh curd to a hard aged wheel.

Flavour. Plain, fragrant basmati; the prized tahdig forms a crisp golden crust at the base of the pan.

Aroma. Saffron and butter when finished; subtly floral from the long-grain rice.

Common uses. The foundational steamed Iranian rice; served alongside khoresh stews (ghormeh sabzi, fesenjan) and grilled kabab. The crispy tahdig is the prized layer.

Flavour. Sweeter and more concentrated than larger tomatoes, with a juicy pop and slightly higher acidity.

Aroma. Bright and tomato-y; intensifies when slow-roasted.

Common uses. Halved into salads, blistered for pasta sauces, slow-roasted with garlic and thyme, skewered with mozzarella for caprese sticks, sliced over bruschetta.

Flavour. Earthier and richer than button mushrooms, with a meatier texture from the firmer cap.

Aroma. Deeply earthy when raw; intensely savoury when fried.

Common uses. Stroganoff, mushroom risotto, pasta sauces, soup, omelettes, on toast. Brown chestnut and white button are the same species at different growth stages.

Flavour. Sweet and starchy, with an almost potato-like texture; the only "nut" that's low in fat and high in carbs.

Aroma. Sweet and warm when roasted.

Common uses. Roasted whole over winter fires, in stuffings (especially for turkey), Mont Blanc desserts, marrons glacés, soups, stews, vermicelli puddings.

Flavour. Mild, savoury and clean; the universal protein adaptable to almost any seasoning. Dark meat (thigh, leg) is richer than breast.

Aroma. Subtle raw; deeply roasted when crisped.

Common uses. Roast dinners, curries, stews, stir-fries, grilled and barbecued, fried, in soups and pies, shredded into salads. Stretched across nearly every cuisine on earth.

Flavour. Mild, lean and clean - the blank-canvas protein; dries out fast without care.

Aroma. Subtle raw; meaty when seared.

Common uses. Schnitzel, fajitas, stir-fries, sandwiches, salads, poached for chicken sandwiches, grilled and sliced. Pound thin or butterfly for even cooking.

Flavour. Mild and lean; the boneless skinless cut tailored to quick cooking.

Aroma. Subtle raw; meatier when seared.

Common uses. Schnitzel, chicken Kiev, grilled in salads, stir-fries, fajitas, slices for curry. Brine briefly or marinade to keep moist.

Flavour. Lean, mild and forgiving of strong seasonings; the most popular cut by far in Western cooking.

Aroma. Subtle raw; deeply meaty when grilled or fried.

Common uses. Grilled, pan-fried, baked, poached, stuffed and rolled, in fajitas and stir-fries, sliced over salads. Boneless skinless is the most versatile; skin-on adds flavour.

Flavour. Light, clean and savoury; less rich than stock but more delicate, perfect for clear soups.

Aroma. Warm and slightly meaty.

Common uses. Risotto, simple soups, sauce reductions, deglazing pans, cooking rice and quinoa. The home-cook's do-everything base.

Flavour. Mild and lean, with a clean meaty flavour; the boneless skinless cut.

Aroma. Subtle raw; deeply meaty when seared.

Common uses. Schnitzel, sliced into stir-fries, grilled and added to wraps, used in curries. Forgiving and quick-cooking; ideal for weeknight meals.

Flavour. Rich, slightly gamey and tender, with a deep meatiness and a faint mineral edge.

Aroma. Strongly meaty when grilled.

Common uses. Brazilian churrasco skewers (coração de frango), Filipino isaw, French gizzards salads, Japanese yakitori, Portuguese cataplana. Trim the top fat and connective tissue before cooking.

Flavour. Rich, dark and full-flavoured; the bone and fat keep the meat moist and savoury during long cooks.

Aroma. Intensely meaty when roasted or grilled.

Common uses. Roast chicken pieces, jambalaya, jerk chicken, coq au vin, southern fried chicken, jointed into casseroles. More forgiving than breasts.

Flavour. Rich, slightly sweet and intensely mineral; the iron note that builds depth in pâtés and sauces.

Aroma. Strong and mineral raw; rich and meaty when fried.

Common uses. Pâté de foie de volaille, peri-peri chicken livers, Italian crostini di fegatini, dirty rice, Egyptian kibda iskandarani, Tuscan ragù. Trim the connective veins before cooking.

Flavour. Mixed dark and white meat depending on cut; bone-in pieces are richer than fillets.

Aroma. Meaty when browned or roasted.

Common uses. Curries, casseroles, traybakes, jerk chicken, southern fried, roasted in herbs. Eight-piece jointing (2 breasts halved, 2 thighs, 2 drumsticks, 2 wings) is the British standard.

Flavour. Light, savoury and slightly gelatinous when made from bones; the most versatile stock in Western cooking.

Aroma. Warm and meaty.

Common uses. Risotto, soups, sauce reductions, gravy, deglazing pans, cooking grains, poaching liquids. Homemade beats cubes; carcasses freeze well for batch-making.

Flavour. Rich, dark and fattier than breast; almost impossible to overcook to dry.

Aroma. Deeply meaty when seared or roasted.

Common uses. Curries, stir-fries, casseroles, fajitas, traybakes. Boneless skinless is the weeknight workhorse; bone-in skin-on takes longer but rewards with deeper flavour.

Flavour. Rich and dark-meat, forgiving of long cook times; juicier than breast.

Aroma. Deeply savoury when browned.

Common uses. Curries, stir-fries, fajitas, gyros, Korean fried chicken, casseroles, kebabs. Cut into chunks for stews or kept whole for grilling.

Flavour. Rich, dark meat with high fat content; the most flavourful and forgiving cut.

Aroma. Intensely meaty when roasted or seared.

Common uses. Roasted, braised, in curries, jerk chicken, coq au vin, butter chicken, biryani, southern fried, kebabs, jambalaya. The home cook's favourite cut once they discover it.

Flavour. All dark meat - rich, juicy and forgiving; what most cuisines use when they want roasted chicken with character.

Aroma. Intensely meaty when roasted or grilled.

Common uses. Jerk chicken, roast pieces with herbs, jointed into casseroles, fried chicken, peri-peri chicken, tandoori chicken. Bone-in cuts beat fillets for flavour.

Flavour. Rich and meaty with crispy skin when fried or grilled; the bones and skin give wings their iconic flavour.

Aroma. Deeply roasted when crisped.

Common uses. Buffalo wings, Korean fried wings, sticky soy-honey wings, jerk wings, baked with rubs. Drumettes, flats and tips - butchers can separate or sell whole.

Flavour. Nutty, slightly bitter and earthy; gluten-free and high in protein.

Aroma. Faintly nutty raw; richer when toasted.

Common uses. Indian pakora and besan ladoo batter, French socca, Italian farinata, Burmese tofu (from chickpea flour, not soy), egg-free omelettes, gluten-free baking. Toast lightly first for the best flavour.

Flavour. Nutty, creamy and mild; the starchy backbone of countless dishes across the Mediterranean and South Asia.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly toasty.

Common uses. Hummus, falafel, channa masala, chana dal, Spanish potajes, Italian pasta e ceci. The cooking liquid (aquafaba) whips like egg whites for vegan meringues.

Flavour. Varies enormously by variety - mild and fruity (sweet peppers) to face-melting (habanero, Carolina reaper); heat builds on the tongue.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy raw; deeper and fruity when dried or smoked.

Common uses. Universal across cuisines - fresh chillies in salsas and curries, dried whole in stews, ground into powders, fermented into hot sauces, infused into oils.

Flavour. Salty, savoury, fermented and spicy; doubanjiang from Pixian is the most famous, an aged paste of broad beans, chillies and salt.

Aroma. Funky and umami-rich.

Common uses. The defining flavour of Sichuan cooking - mapo tofu, twice-cooked pork, shuizhu beef, hot pot bases. A spoonful gives sauce deep red colour and complex heat.

Flavour. Hot and slightly fruity, with flavour varying by chilli source (Italian peperoncino is mild and fruity; Korean gochugaru is sweet and smoky).

Aroma. Pungent and warm.

Common uses. Pasta arrabbiata, pizza, chilli oils, finishing on pizza or eggs, in sausage seasoning, Korean kimchi. Aleppo pepper and Maras pepper are gentler, more flavourful flakes.

Flavour. Hot and infused with the flavour of whichever chillies were used; Chinese laoganma-style is funky and Sichuan-pepper-tinged.

Aroma. Toasty and warm; chilli-forward.

Common uses. Drizzled over noodles, dumplings, and rice dishes; stirred into dipping sauces; used in Chinese stir-fries; finishing wontons and dan dan noodles.

Flavour. Varies hugely - American "chili powder" is a blend (chilli, cumin, garlic, oregano); pure chilli powder is just ground dried chillies.

Aroma. Warm and slightly smoky.

Common uses. Tex-Mex chilli con carne, Mexican enchilada sauce (pure ground chilli), Indian masalas, dry rubs. Read the label - blend vs pure makes a big difference.

Flavour. Hot and tangy, often vinegar-based; varies wildly by origin - sriracha is garlicky-sweet, Mexican is fruity, Caribbean is fierce.

Aroma. Pungent and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Dipping sauce for spring rolls and grilled meats, stirred into mayo, splashed over noodles, on burgers, into marinades. Sriracha is the global default.

Flavour. Range from mild and fruity to face-melting hot; heat (from capsaicin) builds with each variety - bird's-eye and scotch bonnet at the hot end.

Aroma. Fresh and green raw; smoky and concentrated when dried.

Common uses. Fresh in curries, salsas, stir-fries; dried whole in stews and rehydrated for pastes; ground into powders and pastes. Deseed to reduce heat without losing flavour.

Flavour. Mild, sweet and slightly peppery; tender white ribs and crinkly pale green leaves.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy.

Common uses. Kimchi (the napa variety), Chinese stir-fries, dumpling fillings, hotpots, soups, Japanese tsukemono pickles. Cooks quickly; add at the end of stir-fries.

Flavour. Lighter and cleaner than Western stock, often made with bones plus ginger and spring onion; a delicate, almost clear broth.

Aroma. Subtly aromatic from ginger and spring onion.

Common uses. Wonton soup, Chinese rice (cooked in stock for richness), congee, soup bases for noodles, sauce for steamed fish or vegetables.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Balanced sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami; built on star anise, cloves, cinnamon, Sichuan pepper and fennel.

Aroma. Warm, sweet and slightly numbing from the Sichuan pepper.

Common uses. Chinese roast duck, char siu, Vietnamese pho, marinades for pork and chicken, rubbed on belly pork before roasting. A pinch goes a long way.

Flavour. Sweet and slightly winy, with a firmer, drier texture than Western sausages; the most common variety is lap cheong, made with pork, soy and rose wine.

Aroma. Slightly sweet and smoky.

Common uses. Sliced into Chinese fried rice, claypot rice, sticky rice dumplings (zongzi), congee. Steam or fry slices until the fat starts to render.

Flavour. Deep, smoky and slightly sweet, with a balsamic-like complexity; the most famous Chinese black vinegar, aged from glutinous rice.

Aroma. Funky and woody.

Common uses. Dipping sauce for dumplings (with ginger), Sichuan dishes, hot-and-sour soup, sweet-and-sour pork. A spoonful adds depth to stir-fries.

Flavour. Moderately hot with deep smoky, slightly sweet notes; smoked and dried jalapeños.

Aroma. Pronounced smoke and warm spice.

Common uses. Mexican adobo sauces, salsas, mole, rubs, chilli con carne. Rehydrate in hot water and blend, or buy as chipotles in adobo for instant smoky heat.

Flavour. Smoky, moderately hot and slightly sweet from the vinegary tomato adobo sauce; tinned chipotle chillies in a rich red marinade.

Aroma. Pronounced smoke and warm spice.

Common uses. Tex-Mex queso, adobo for tacos and pulled pork, chipotle mayo, marinades, salsas. Both the chillies and the sauce are useful - chop chillies in, swirl sauce out.

Flavour. Mild, fresh and gently oniony; the gentlest member of the allium family.

Aroma. Subtle and green; intensified when cut.

Common uses. Snipped over potato salad, soured cream, scrambled eggs, baked potatoes, vichyssoise, omelettes. Always added at the end - heat destroys the flavour.

Flavour. Smoky, paprika-rich and porky, with a deep red colour from the smoked paprika (pimentón); Spanish-style is dry-cured, Mexican is fresh.

Aroma. Smoky, garlicky and warm.

Common uses. Cooking versions stir into paella, fabada and stews; cured versions slice for tapas, on tortilla española, in salads. Mexican fresh chorizo is crumbled into tacos and queso.

Flavour. Spicy, smoky and rich with paprika; Spanish style is firm and dry-cured, Mexican is soft and uncured.

Aroma. Smoky, garlicky and warm.

Common uses. Spanish paella, lentil stews, tapas (sliced cured), Mexican tacos and quesadillas (fresh chorizo), in egg dishes, sandwiches. The rendered fat is gold for cooking.

Flavour. Smoky, garlicky and porky; the Portuguese cousin of chorizo, often spicier and more red-wine-y.

Aroma. Smoky and slightly winy.

Common uses. Portuguese caldo verde, feijoada, cataplana, açorda, frango piri-piri. Slice and crisp first to render the fat - it flavours everything else.

Flavour. Neutral and lightly eggy on its own; built to puff and crisp around whatever fills it.

Aroma. Buttery and faintly wheaten when baked.

Common uses. Profiteroles, eclairs, gougeres, salambos, croquembouche, gateau St-Honore, Spanish churros and Hungarian képviselőfánk; piped into rounds and baked or fried for hollow shells that hold cream, custard or savoury fillings.

Flavour. Mildly wheaty pre-mixed flour blend designed to give the airy open crumb of Italian ciabatta with little effort.

Aroma. Yeasty when prepared.

Common uses. Quick weekend ciabatta loaves, focaccia attempts, pizza bases. Just add water and yeast; the mix handles the protein balance.

Flavour. Sweet to dry fermented apple drink; West Country English cider is dry and tannic, French Norman is sweeter and slightly fizzy.

Aroma. Apple, faintly yeasty.

Common uses. Splashed into pork stews, mussels marinière (instead of wine), braised cabbage, applesauce. Drunk alongside ploughman's lunch and pork dishes.

Flavour. Sharp and tangy with a soft apple-y sweetness; lighter and fruitier than white wine vinegar.

Aroma. Crisp and cidery.

Common uses. BBQ sauces, salad dressings, pickling brines, slaws, brown sauces, folk-remedy tonics. Unfiltered "with the mother" works identically in cooking.

Flavour. Bright, citrusy and grassy; tastes like soap to some people (a genetic quirk). The leafy form of coriander.

Aroma. Sharp and fresh.

Common uses. Mexican salsas, guacamole, Indian chutneys, Thai and Vietnamese garnish, Middle Eastern salads. Add at the end; heat kills the flavour. Cilantro is the American name; UK calls the leaf coriander.

Flavour. Warm, sweet and slightly woody. Cassia (the supermarket default) is bolder; true Ceylon cinnamon is more delicate.

Aroma. Instantly evocative: sweet, dusty, warm.

Common uses. Sweet baking (cakes, buns, biscuits), porridge, mulled drinks. Equally at home in savoury Moroccan tagines, Indian biryanis, Mexican mole and Greek meat sauces.

Flavour. Warm, sweet and slightly woody; cassia (most supermarket sticks) is stronger; true Ceylon is more delicate.

Aroma. Instantly evocative - sweet, dusty and warm.

Common uses. Infused into curries, biryanis, mulled drinks, rice puddings, poached fruit. Remove before serving; the bark stays papery.

Flavour. Warm, sweet and faintly woody; release flavour slowly when simmered.

Aroma. Sweet and warming.

Common uses. Mulled wine, biryani, curry pots, rice puddings, Moroccan tagines, Mexican champurrado, hot chocolate. Pull out before serving.

Flavour. Briny and sweetly oceanic, with a soft tender texture; small clams are tenderer than large.

Aroma. Fresh sea air.

Common uses. Spaghetti alle vongole, clam chowder, paella, Portuguese cataplana, steamed with garlic and wine, Korean kalguksu. Soak in salted water before cooking to purge sand.

Flavour. Pure, rich and nutty butter flavour without the milk solids - clean, deep and golden.

Aroma. Buttery and slightly toasty.

Common uses. Frying at higher temperatures than whole butter (no burning), drawn butter for lobster, ghee for Indian cooking, finishing rice and grains. Lasts months in the cupboard.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, briny and slightly chewy; like a cross between scallop and squid, mild but distinct.

Aroma. Fresh and oceanic.

Common uses. Caribbean conch fritters, conch chowder (especially Bahamian), conch salad (kinilaw-style), Italian conch stew. Often pounded to tenderise before cooking.

Flavour. Sweet with floral or fruity notes depending on the bee's forage; clear varieties pour easily and dissolve into drinks.

Aroma. Floral and warm.

Common uses. Drizzled over yoghurt, porridge and pancakes; the sweet side of dressings and marinades; in tea; glazing roasted ham or carrots; in baking.

Flavour. Intensely rich, creamy and lightly nutty; made by slowly heating thick cream until a yellow "clotted" crust forms on top.

Aroma. Sweet, cooked-cream warmth.

Common uses. The crowning glory of a Devon cream tea - scones with jam and clotted cream. Also folded into ice cream bases, dolloped onto warm puddings, spread on toast.

Flavour. Intensely warm, sweet and slightly numbing; powerful - a few cloves go a long way.

Aroma. Pungently sweet and aromatic.

Common uses. Christmas baking, mulled wine, biryani, garam masala, Caribbean jerk seasoning, Chinese five-spice, pickling brines, dental remedies (numbing). Whole studded into onions for stocks; ground into spice mixes.

Flavour. Intensely warm and sweet with a numbing tingle; the dried flower bud of an Indonesian tree.

Aroma. Powerfully sweet and aromatic - one of the most distinctive spice smells.

Common uses. Studded into oranges for pomanders or onions for stock, mulled wine, biryanis, Indian masalas, jerk seasoning, Chinese braises. Always use sparingly.

Flavour. Deeply chocolatey and slightly bitter; natural cocoa is acidic and fruity, Dutch-process is mellower and darker.

Aroma. Rich chocolate, slightly roasted.

Common uses. Brownies, hot chocolate, chocolate cakes and ganaches, dusting truffles, mole sauce, tiramisu, chocolate-flavoured icing. Sift to break up clumps.

Flavour. Sweet, creamy and tropical, with rich oily depth; fresh has a more complex sweetness than dried.

Aroma. Tropical and sweet.

Common uses. Curries (Thai, Indian, Caribbean), desserts (macaroons, lamingtons, snowballs), milk and cream extractions, toasted as a garnish, in baking. Every part is used - water, milk, cream, flesh, oil.

Flavour. Rich, sweet and intensely coconut; thicker and more concentrated than coconut milk.

Aroma. Tropical and sweet.

Common uses. Thai curries (especially the first hard fry of the paste), Caribbean stews, ice creams, panna cottas, piña coladas, Indonesian rendang. Skim from the top of an unshaken tin.

Flavour. Sweet, mildly coconutty and absorbent; gluten-free and high in fibre.

Aroma. Faintly tropical.

Common uses. Gluten-free and paleo baking - pancakes, breads, cakes (use eggs as a binder), keto recipes. Absorbs much more liquid than wheat flour; 1:4 ratio when substituting.

Flavour. Creamy, mildly sweet and faintly tropical; full-fat is rich and luxurious, light versions are watery.

Aroma. Sweet and coconutty.

Common uses. Thai curries, Indian fish curry, Caribbean rice and peas, Indonesian rendang, vegan ice cream and panna cotta, piña coladas, Brazilian moqueca. The cream rises to the top in unshaken tins.

Flavour. Faintly sweet and tropical when unrefined; refined versions are neutral. Solid below 24°C.

Aroma. Tropical and coconutty (unrefined); neutral (refined).

Common uses. Tropical baking and curries, vegan butter substitute, popcorn oil, finishing on Thai dishes. Refined for neutral cooking; virgin for flavour.

Flavour. Mild, sweet, clean; flakes into large white shards when cooked through.

Aroma. Faintly briny and fresh-sea.

Common uses. Fish and chips, brandade, bacalao a la vizcaina, Portuguese bacalhau (when salted and dried); battered, baked, steamed or poached.

Flavour. Mild, sweet, clean; the boneless cut breaks into chunky white flakes.

Aroma. Faintly briny.

Common uses. Battered for fish and chips, baked with butter and herbs, poached in court bouillon, used in fish pies and chowders, marinated for ceviche.

Flavour. Warm, smooth and grape-y, with vanilla and oak from extended barrel ageing; the most famous French brandy.

Aroma. Floral, fruity and warmly alcoholic.

Common uses. Flambéed pan sauces, in pâtés and terrines, Christmas pudding, French onion soup, classic cocktails (sidecar, French 75), and dolloped into espresso.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and faintly sweet; the cold state matters more than the flavour for pastry work.

Aroma. Subtle and dairy.

Common uses. Shortcrust pastry, puff pastry, scones, pie dough - the cold butter pieces stay intact and create flaky layers as they melt in the oven. Always cube and chill before rubbing in.

Flavour. Mild, slightly porky and rich; less assertive than butter, with a higher melting point.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Traditional Latin American pastry (empanadas, tamales), tortillas, refried beans, Spanish carnitas, British shortcrust pastry, fried chicken. Gives a crumblier, flakier texture than butter.

Flavour. Pure, sweet dairy without added salt; control the seasoning precisely.

Aroma. Clean and creamy.

Common uses. Pie pastry, puff pastry, shortcrust, scones, biscuit dough - anywhere flakiness depends on cold butter staying solid until baking. Cube and chill before working in.

Flavour. Earthy, slightly bitter and robust; the leaves are tougher than spinach or chard, holding up to long simmering.

Aroma. Vegetal and slightly cabbage-like.

Common uses. Southern American slow-cooked greens (with smoked ham hock), Brazilian feijoada accompaniment (couve à mineira), Portuguese caldo verde, Ethiopian gomen. Strip the leaves from the tough central stem.

Flavour. Nutty, fruity and slightly grainy; aged French Alpine cheese with a flavour that builds with months of ageing.

Aroma. Sweet, hay-like and slightly butterscotch.

Common uses. Fondue savoyarde, gratin dauphinois, cheeseboards, in salads with walnuts and pears, melted onto crusty bread. The Swiss cousin gruyère substitutes well.

Flavour. Sharp, sour and firmly tart; collapse into fluffy purée when cooked. British Bramley is the classic.

Aroma. Tart and faintly floral.

Common uses. Apple pie, crumble, applesauce, baked apples, chutney, charlottes. Always need added sugar; eating apples don't soften the same way.

Flavour. Bright, citrusy and slightly soapy leaves; warm, lemony seeds.

Aroma. Sharp and green from the leaf; toasty and orange-peel-like from the seed.

Common uses. Leaves finish curries, salsas, salads, soups and noodle dishes across Indian, Mexican, Thai and Vietnamese cooking. Seeds are a backbone of curry powder, garam masala and many spice rubs.

Flavour. Bright, citrusy and slightly soapy (genetic predisposition); the leafy part of the coriander plant.

Aroma. Sharp and fresh.

Common uses. Finishing Mexican salsas, Indian chutneys, Thai and Vietnamese garnish, Middle Eastern salads (tabbouleh-adjacent), pho. Always added at the end; heat kills the flavour.

Flavour. Warm, citrusy and slightly sweet; the ground form of coriander seeds, completely different from the leaf.

Aroma. Lemon-zest-and-pine.

Common uses. Indian curries, garam masala, taco seasoning, North African and Middle Eastern spice blends. The lemony freshness is its hallmark.

Flavour. Stronger, more intense and slightly earthier than the leaves; deep flavour that survives cooking.

Aroma. Pungent and herbaceous.

Common uses. Thai curry pastes (the secret of green and red curry depth), Thai marinades, dipping sauces. Wash thoroughly; the dirt clings.

Flavour. Warm, citrusy and slightly nutty; the round dried seeds of the coriander plant.

Aroma. Floral and lemony, especially when toasted.

Common uses. Ground into curry powder, garam masala, Indian pickling, Mexican chorizo, Middle Eastern dukkah, beer brewing (witbier). Toast lightly before grinding for maximum flavour.

Flavour. Slightly stronger than the leaves but the same citrusy character; chop and use; don't throw away.

Aroma. Sharp and fresh.

Common uses. Chopped into salsas, dressings, stir-fries, soups; pounded into Thai curry pastes. Full of flavour and crunch.

Flavour. Crunchy and citrusy, with more intensity than the leaves; do not throw away.

Aroma. Fresh and herbaceous.

Common uses. Chopped fine into salsas, guacamole, Thai pastes, salads. Survive cooking better than the leaves; add earlier for slow-cooked dishes.

Flavour. Sweet, milky and tender when fresh; the sugar converts to starch within hours of picking.

Aroma. Grassy when fresh; sweet and toasty when grilled or roasted.

Common uses. On the cob with butter, kernels in salads, salsas and chowders, ground into masa for tortillas, popped, creamed, in succotash and elote.

Flavour. Sweet and milky, with the satisfying crunch of fresh kernels straight off the cob.

Aroma. Grassy raw; deeply roasted when grilled.

Common uses. Boiled and slathered with butter, grilled and brushed with chilli butter, Mexican elote (with mayo, lime, cotija), in clambakes, the cobs themselves flavour chowders and stocks.

Flavour. Sweet, milky and tender; the individual grains separated from the cob.

Aroma. Grassy raw; toasty when grilled.

Common uses. Salads (esquites), salsas, chowders, succotash, fritters, tossed into rice and pasta dishes. Frozen and tinned save the season; fresh in summer is incomparable.

Flavour. Earthy, faintly sweet and nutty from the nixtamalised corn; thinner and more delicate than flour tortillas.

Aroma. Toasty when warmed.

Common uses. Tacos, enchiladas, tostadas, chilaquiles, quesadillas, totopos (tortilla chips). Always warm before serving - briefly on a dry pan or comal.

Flavour. Sweet, milky and juicy when fresh; the corn-on-the-cob form retains every kernel intact.

Aroma. Sweet and grassy raw; toasty and caramel when grilled.

Common uses. Boiled and buttered, grilled with chilli butter, Mexican elote, in chowders and seafood boils, cut off and stirred into risottos. Husk just before cooking for best sweetness.

Flavour. Neutral and slightly powdery; the British name for cornstarch.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Thickener for sauces, gravies and stews; coating for fried chicken (gives the crispest finish); custards and puddings; gluten-free baking. Slake in cold water first to avoid lumps.

Flavour. Tart, briny and crunchy; the French gherkin, pickled in vinegar with tarragon.

Aroma. Sharply vinegary and herbal.

Common uses. Sliced into rémoulade and tartare sauces, served alongside pâté and rillettes, on charcuterie boards, chopped into Russian salad. Sharper and smaller than American dill pickles.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly nutty and grainy; varies by grind - coarse gives polenta's grit, fine gives smooth cornbread.

Aroma. Toasty when baked or fried.

Common uses. Cornbread, polenta, grits, dusting pizza peels, coating fried fish, Italian fritters, Mexican atole and pinole, Caribbean cou-cou. Coarse and fine grinds give different textures.

Flavour. Neutral and slightly powdery; the American name for cornflour.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Thickening sauces, gravies, custards and stir-fries; binding for fried foods (Korean fried chicken, Chinese velveted meat); gluten-free baking. Slake in cold water before stirring into hot liquid.

Flavour. Salty, firm and slightly tangy; a Mexican aged cow's milk cheese, often crumbly like feta but drier.

Aroma. Sharp and milky.

Common uses. Crumbled over Mexican street corn (elote), tostadas, refried beans, chilaquiles, tacos, enchiladas. Feta is the closest substitute outside Mexico.

Flavour. Mild, slightly sweet and grassy; the British name for zucchini.

Aroma. Subtle and fresh.

Common uses. Ratatouille, courgette fritti, grated into cakes and breads, spiralised into "noodles", grilled or roasted, stuffed and baked. Salt before frying to remove water.

Flavour. Mild and slightly sweet; the British name for zucchini, with a watery interior and tender skin.

Aroma. Faintly grassy.

Common uses. Ratatouille, courgetti, courgette flowers stuffed with ricotta, grilled with olive oil and salt, in summer pasta sauces. The flowers (when fresh) batter and fry beautifully.

Flavour. Mild, slightly nutty and absorbent; small steamed semolina granules.

Aroma. Faintly wheaty.

Common uses. North African tagines and stews (the classic accompaniment), salads (tabbouleh-style), pilaf-style with herbs, Israeli couscous (larger pearls) for hot side dishes. Fluff with a fork after cooking.

Flavour. Crisp, aromatic and honey-sweet with a balancing tart edge; the classic English dessert apple.

Aroma. Floral, faintly pear-like, with a touch of spice.

Common uses. Eaten out of hand at peak season (October through February), sliced into salads, cooked into pies, crumbles and tarts; holds its shape better than Bramley but breaks down less than Granny Smith.

Flavour. Hot and woody, with floral and citrus notes; coarser cracking gives bursts of pepper flavour rather than even distribution.

Aroma. Sharp and aromatic.

Common uses. On steaks (steak au poivre), salads, pasta (cacio e pepe), in dressings, pickling brines. Always crack just before use.

Flavour. Sharp, hot and woody; the coarse-crack form gives concentrated bursts of pepper rather than evenly distributed heat.

Aroma. Pungent and floral.

Common uses. Pressed into steak au poivre, on Caesar salads, in pâté, sprinkled over carbonara, in pickling brines. Crack just before cooking; pre-cracked loses its punch fast.

Flavour. Tart, sharp and faintly bitter; sweetens with cooking and added sugar.

Aroma. Bright and slightly tannic raw.

Common uses. Cranberry sauce (the Christmas/Thanksgiving classic), cranberry bread, juiced, glazed pork, cranberry-orange muffins, dried in trail mix and salads.

Flavour. Sweet, briny and tender, similar to lobster but smaller; mild and slightly mineral.

Aroma. Fresh and oceanic.

Common uses. Crawfish étouffée, jambalaya, crawfish pies, gumbo, po' boys, Cajun pasta. Often sold pre-cooked, peeled and frozen.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly briny and tender; smaller, freshwater cousin of lobster.

Aroma. Fresh and oceanic.

Common uses. Louisiana crawfish boil, étouffée, gumbo, Cajun pasta, crayfish bisque, Swedish kräftskiva (crayfish parties). Shells make exceptional shellfish stock.

Flavour. Rich, slightly sweet and creamy; the fat content (single 18%, double 48%, clotted 55%+) drives the dish.

Aroma. Subtle and dairy.

Common uses. Sauces, custards, ice cream, panna cotta, soup enrichment, whipped for desserts, poured over fruit and puddings. Lightly thickens stews and curries.

Flavour. Rich, smooth and tangy; the spreadable, slightly acidic fresh cheese.

Aroma. Mild and dairy.

Common uses. Cheesecake, bagels with smoked salmon, frosting for carrot cake and red velvet, dips, savoury pastries, stuffed jalapeños. Philadelphia is the most famous brand.

Flavour. Sweet, vanilla-rich and silky; a thin pouring custard of egg yolks, sugar and milk or cream.

Aroma. Sweet vanilla custard.

Common uses. Poured over crumbles, fruit pies, sponge puddings, sticky toffee pudding; the base for ice cream; spooned around plated desserts. Coats the back of a spoon when ready.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Lightly sweetened whipped cream, often flavoured with vanilla; smooth and luxurious.

Aroma. Vanilla and dairy.

Common uses. Topping for fruit, pavlova, chocolate desserts, French strawberries with chantilly, filling for choux pastry, between sponge layers, on hot chocolate.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Rich, tangy and slightly nutty; thicker and less sour than soured cream; doesn't split when boiled.

Aroma. Lactic and slightly fermented.

Common uses. Stirred into pasta sauces and soups (without splitting), dolloped on chilli and baked potatoes, spread on crackers with smoked salmon, blended into dressings, enriching tarts.

Flavour. Rich, vanilla-thick and luscious; the pastry cream of French baking, stiffer than crème anglaise.

Aroma. Vanilla and cooked custard.

Common uses. Filling for éclairs, choux buns, mille-feuille, tarte aux fruits, doughnuts, Boston cream pie. The yolks, sugar, milk and cornflour are cooked together to a thick paste.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Smoky, peppery and herbal, with paprika depth and pronounced thyme; varies in heat.

Aroma. Warm, pungent and herbal.

Common uses. Louisiana classics - blackened fish, jambalaya, gumbo, étouffée, dirty rice. Tony Chachere's is the gold standard supermarket brand.

Flavour. Sharp, coarse-grained and slightly horseradish-edged; the Louisiana take on whole-grain mustard.

Aroma. Pungent and vinegary.

Common uses. Remoulade sauce (the Louisiana sauce for shrimp and crab), po' boy sandwiches, glazes for ham, deviled eggs, salad dressings. Zatarain's is the brand to look for.

Flavour. Smoky, peppery, herbal and slightly hot; built on paprika, thyme, oregano, garlic and cayenne.

Aroma. Warm and pungent, with herbal notes.

Common uses. Jambalaya, gumbo, étouffée, blackened fish and chicken, dirty rice, Cajun shrimp pasta. Sprinkled liberally - Louisianans use it like salt.

Flavour. Thin, tender and lightly eggy; a blank canvas for sweet or savoury fillings.

Aroma. Faintly buttery when warmed.

Common uses. Suzette (with orange and Grand Marnier), with Nutella and banana, with lemon and sugar, French savoury galettes with ham and egg, Hungarian palacsinta. Rest the batter before cooking.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, savoury and crunchy; the sliced-thin onion fried to deep golden.

Aroma. Sweet and toasty.

Common uses. Topping biryani and pulao, in Danish hot dogs (ristede løg), on Indian dals, scattered over salads, garnishing green bean casserole at American Thanksgiving. French's brand is famous.

Flavour. Sweet, savoury and crunchy; thinly sliced shallots fried until golden and crisp.

Aroma. Sweet and toasty.

Common uses. The universal Southeast Asian garnish - on pho, on Indonesian fried rice, on Thai salads, on porridge and noodle soups, on stir-fries. The oil they're fried in is also useful.

Flavour. Sweet, buttery and yeasty; laminated yeast dough with butter folded between layers.

Aroma. Buttery and slightly yeasty.

Common uses. Croissants (obviously), pain au chocolat, almond croissants, croissant bread pudding, kouign-amann. The all-butter version is far superior to the puff-style.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Wheaty crumb with a crackling, slightly chewy crust; the bread to mop sauces with.

Aroma. Sweet and toasty.

Common uses. Served alongside soups, stews, casseroles and bourguignon to soak up sauce; for bruschetta and crostini; in bread-and-butter pudding; for fondue dipping.

Flavour. Mild wheaten interior with a robust caramelised crust; chewy crumb with open holes.

Aroma. Warm baking bread; faint sourness in long-fermented loaves.

Common uses. Rubbed with garlic and tomato for bruschetta and pa amb tomàquet, dunked in caldo verde, served alongside Portuguese sardines, mopping up stews.

Flavour. Earthy, slightly sour and chewy, with notes of caraway when seeded; denser than wheat bread.

Aroma. Sour and faintly malty.

Common uses. German and Scandinavian open sandwiches (smørrebrød), with smoked fish or pickled herring, reuben sandwiches, Russian and Polish soups, alongside hearty stews.

Flavour. Cool, watery and slightly grassy; very mild on its own, picks up flavours from dressings and pickles.

Aroma. Fresh and faintly green.

Common uses. Salads (Greek, niçoise), tzatziki, raitas, gazpacho, sandwiches (cucumber finger sandwiches), smashed Sichuan-style, pickles. Deseed for less wateriness in salads.

Flavour. Cool, watery and slightly grassy; the universally available form for sandwiches and salads.

Aroma. Fresh and crisp.

Common uses. Greek salads, sandwiches, garnish for cocktails (Pimms, gin), on canapés, in raitas, smashed for spicy Chinese pickles. Salt and drain to remove excess water.

Flavour. Watery and mildly grassy; English/Persian/Lebanese cucumbers are tenderer and almost seedless.

Aroma. Faintly fresh and green.

Common uses. Salads, sandwiches, pickling, tzatziki, raita, gazpacho, summer drinks (cucumber-mint water), Korean smashed cucumber. Slice with a mandolin for paper-thin canapé bases.

Flavour. Earthy and warm, with a slight bitterness and a smoky note when toasted.

Aroma. Pungent and warm; transforms when toasted into something nuttier and rounder.

Common uses. Essential in Indian, Mexican, Middle Eastern and North African cooking. Goes into curry powder, garam masala, chilli powder, taco seasoning, baharat, ras el hanout. Toast whole seeds before grinding for best results.

Flavour. Warm, earthy and slightly bitter; one of the most universal spices.

Aroma. Pungent and warm.

Common uses. Curry powder, taco seasoning, chilli con carne, North African tagines, Middle Eastern hummus, Mexican rice. Toast the whole seeds first then grind for deeper flavour.

Flavour. Warm, earthy and slightly bitter; toasted, they bloom into something nuttier and rounder.

Aroma. Pungent and warm; transforms when toasted.

Common uses. Tempered in oil at the start of Indian dishes (jeera rice, tarka dal), in spice mixes, dukkah, Mexican adobos. Crush lightly to release oils.

Flavour. Tart-sweet and intensely raisin-like; tinier and more concentrated than raisins or sultanas.

Aroma. Sweet and slightly winy.

Common uses. Eccles cakes, hot cross buns, Christmas pudding, scones, Greek spanakopita (currants and pine nuts in spinach), Sicilian pasta con le sarde. Soak in warm water or rum to plump.

Flavour. Sweet from slow-cooked onions, warm with garam masala and turmeric, lightly tomato-rounded; a deep savoury base that other spice mixes are built on top of.

Aroma. Caramelised onion, cumin and toasted spice.

Common uses. The British Indian Restaurant (BIR) curry base - a 4 kg batch of onions slow-simmered with cumin, turmeric, garam masala, coconut cream and tomato purée, then blended smooth. Portioned into freezer bags and pulled out as the foundation of every BIR curry (jalfrezi, madras, vindaloo, balti, korma, dopiaza, etc.).

Flavour. Unique - faintly citrus, slightly nutty and faintly smoky; nothing else tastes like them.

Aroma. Distinctively warm and curry-like when fried in hot oil.

Common uses. Tempered in oil at the start of South Indian dishes - dal, sambar, rasam, kara kuzhambu, lemon rice. Indispensable for southern Indian and Sri Lankan cooking. Often available frozen in Indian shops.

Flavour. Mild to medium-hot, balanced and rounded; built on turmeric, coriander, cumin, fenugreek and chilli.

Aroma. Warm and aromatic.

Common uses. British curry powder dishes (kedgeree, Coronation chicken), Japanese karē raisu, Singaporean fried rice, Caribbean curries. Madras-style is hotter; mild and medium suit milder palates.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, vanilla and faintly egg-yolk-y; a British shortcut for proper custard, mostly cornflour, sugar and flavouring.

Aroma. Vanilla and sweet.

Common uses. Mixed with hot milk for instant custard, in custard creams, in trifles, fairy cakes, doughnut fillings, ice cream base. Bird's is the original British brand.

Flavour. Mild, slightly peppery and faintly sweet; less sharp than European radishes, with a clean crisp bite.

Aroma. Subtle and faintly peppery.

Common uses. Japanese pickles (takuan, beni shoga), Korean kkakdugi, Chinese radish cake, grated raw with sushi, simmered in oden, sliced into Vietnamese pho. Mooli is the same vegetable.

Flavour. Mild, juicy and faintly peppery; the long white East Asian radish.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Grated raw as a sushi garnish, simmered in Japanese oden, fermented for Korean kimchi, sliced into Vietnamese pho. Also called mooli in South Asia.

Flavour. Deep, treacly and intensely sweet, with strong molasses and caramel notes; richer than light brown sugar.

Aroma. Warm and treacly.

Common uses. Sticky toffee pudding, gingerbread, BBQ rubs and glazes, brownies, banana bread, marinades for pulled pork, Christmas cakes. The molasses also keeps baked goods softer.

Flavour. Intensely chocolatey and slightly bitter, with fruity, coffee or wine notes depending on the bean origin; sugar content drops as cocoa percentage rises.

Aroma. Roasted, sweet and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Ganaches, mousses, brownies, truffles, hot chocolate, Mexican mole, finishing red wine sauces, paired with sea salt. Cocoa percentages 60-85% are most versatile.

Flavour. Deep, intensely chocolatey and slightly bitter; Dutch-process gives a darker, mellower flavour than natural.

Aroma. Rich roasted chocolate.

Common uses. Black-coloured cakes (Oreo-style, Hummingbird Bakery), brownies, hot chocolate, mole sauces, dusting cake decorations. Pairs well with espresso.

Flavour. Robust, deeply sweet and slightly bitter, with malty and slightly burnt notes; buckwheat and chestnut honeys are darkest.

Aroma. Warm and earthy.

Common uses. Glazes for ham and ribs, baked into gingerbread, in marinades for game, drizzled over strong cheeses (blue, manchego), sweetening coffee. Replaces sugar in robust recipes.

Flavour. Sweet, molasses-rich and warming, with caramel and slightly burnt-sugar depth; aged in oak barrels.

Aroma. Caramel, molasses and warm spice.

Common uses. Rum babas, Caribbean baked beans, Christmas cake and pudding, rum punch, cocktails (dark and stormy), glazing pineapple, in chocolate truffles.

Flavour. Earthy, slightly sour and faintly malty; denser and more strongly flavoured than light rye.

Aroma. Tangy and grain-rich.

Common uses. Scandinavian smørrebrød, German pumpernickel-style sandwiches, with smoked fish or pickled herring, alongside hearty soups, Reuben sandwiches.

Flavour. Saltier, thicker and more molasses-tinged than light soy; aged longer and often sweetened.

Aroma. Deeply savoury and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Chinese braised dishes (red-cooked pork, soy chicken), giving Chinese fried rice its colour, in marinades, glazes. Used more for colour and depth than for salting.

Flavour. Clean, umami-rich and faintly smoky; the foundational Japanese stock of kombu and bonito flakes.

Aroma. Briny and smoky.

Common uses. The base of miso soup, clear soups, simmered Japanese vegetables, tempura dipping sauce (tentsuyu), noodle broths, savoury custards (chawanmushi).

Flavour. Deep caramel and treacle-dark, fruitier and less cloying than honey.

Aroma. Dried fruit, burnt sugar and a faint molasses note.

Common uses. Drizzling over yoghurt and fritters (lugaimat, sticky wings), sweetening cakes and dressings, traditional Middle Eastern desserts.

Flavour. Intensely sweet, caramel-like and almost toffee; varieties range from soft Medjool to drier Deglet Noor.

Aroma. Honey-sweet and slightly molasses.

Common uses. Sticky toffee pudding, Middle Eastern desserts (maamoul, ma'amoul, kleicha), Moroccan tagines, energy balls, stuffed with cheese as appetisers, blended into smoothies.

Flavour. Drier and firmer than fresh bread; mild and wheaty, perfect for soaking up liquids without falling apart.

Aroma. Faintly yeasty and grain-y.

Common uses. French toast, bread pudding, panade for meatballs and burgers, panzanella, ribollita, summer pudding, gazpacho, breadcrumbs. The age is the point.

Flavour. Lightly molasses, coarse and crunchy; the large amber crystals don't dissolve fast.

Aroma. Faintly caramel.

Common uses. Sprinkled on cappuccinos and oatmeal, crusting muffin tops, dusting over creme brulée before torching (or substituting in caster), in shortbread, on top of granola.

Flavour. Sweet, dry and intensely coconutty; finely shredded and oven-dried.

Aroma. Tropical and sweet.

Common uses. Macaroons, lamingtons, coconut buns, mounted on truffles, scattered on rice puddings, in granola, Caribbean grater cake. Toast in a dry pan for the deepest flavour.

Flavour. Sweet, crisp and aromatic; eaten raw rather than cooked. Varieties like Cox, Pink Lady, Royal Gala and Braeburn.

Aroma. Floral and apple-y.

Common uses. Eaten as snacks, sliced into salads (Waldorf), with cheese, in tarte tatin (varieties that hold their shape), juiced, in chutneys. Don't collapse like cooking apples.

Flavour. Lightly sweet, slightly wheaty and crumbly; British semi-sweet biscuit made with wholemeal flour.

Aroma. Toasty and wheaty.

Common uses. The British cheesecake base of choice (crushed with butter), with cheese, in trifles, dunked into tea. McVitie's and Carr's are the classic brands.

Flavour. Sharp, smooth and slightly hot, with a clean tang; less vinegary than American yellow mustard.

Aroma. Pungent and mustardy.

Common uses. Vinaigrettes (the emulsifier of choice), French sauces, deviled eggs, deglazing pan sauces, in honey-mustard glazes, on hot dogs and ham sandwiches, in cheese soufflés.

Flavour. Fresh, slightly anise-like and lemony; the feathery fronds are gentler than the seeds.

Aroma. Bright, herbaceous and faintly aniseed.

Common uses. Scandinavian gravlax, tzatziki, potato salad, pickles (dill pickles), Russian and Polish soups (borscht), egg salad, fish dishes. Always added at the end.

Flavour. Sour, briny and dill-perfumed; thin coin-shaped pickles preserved in vinegar with dill.

Aroma. Vinegary and herbal.

Common uses. On American burgers and hot dogs, in deli sandwiches (especially Reubens), with fried chicken sandwiches, on charcuterie boards, in macaroni salads.

Flavour. Tart, briny and dill-perfumed; cucumbers fermented or vinegar-pickled with dill weed.

Aroma. Sharply vinegary and herbal.

Common uses. On American burgers, in tartare sauce, chopped into potato salad, served with sandwiches and Reubens, in cocktails (the brine for pickle backs). Fermented versions are gut-friendly.

Flavour. Deeply savoury, salty and funky; Korean fermented soybean paste, more robust than Japanese miso.

Aroma. Strong, funky and umami-rich.

Common uses. Korean doenjang jjigae (stew), ssamjang (mixed with gochujang as a wrap dipping sauce), marinades for grilled meats, soup bases, dressings for greens.

Flavour. Salty, savoury, fermented and spicy; the Sichuan fermented broad bean and chilli paste.

Aroma. Funky and umami-rich, with chilli warmth.

Common uses. Mapo tofu, twice-cooked pork, shuizhu beef, dan dan noodles, Sichuan hot pot bases. A spoonful gives deep red colour and complex heat. Pixian doubanjiang is the gold standard.

Flavour. Rich, thick and intensely creamy (48% fat); whips into stiff peaks and can be boiled without splitting.

Aroma. Sweet and dairy.

Common uses. Whipped for puddings and pavlovas, in cream sauces and custards, into panna cotta, fudge, ice cream, finishing soups, splashed over fruit. Heavy cream is the American equivalent.

Flavour. Pungent, hot and slightly bitter; the powdered seed without vinegar or oil.

Aroma. Sharp when wet, mild dry.

Common uses. British cheese sauces, deviled eggs, salad dressings, dry rubs, devilled kidneys, mixed with water for instant hot mustard. Colman's is the classic British brand.

Flavour. Tannic, fruity and slightly acidic; concentrates and deepens with cooking.

Aroma. Fruity and slightly woody.

Common uses. Boeuf bourguignon, coq au vin, ragù bolognese, deglazing pan sauces for steak, mulled wine, sangria. Use something you'd drink - cheap cooking wine tastes bad.

Flavour. Nutty, slightly oxidative and savoury; fino is the lightest, manzanilla salty, amontillado deeper.

Aroma. Nutty and yeasty.

Common uses. Spanish stews (Spanish chicken with sherry), gazpacho splash, French onion soup, mushroom sauces, Chinese stir-fries (substitute for Shaoxing wine), splashed into pâté.

Flavour. Crisp, acidic and slightly fruity; sauvignon blanc, pinot grigio or chardonnay work well.

Aroma. Floral and fruity.

Common uses. Risotto, moules marinière, white wine cream sauces, deglazing pan sauces for fish and chicken, beurre blanc, fondue, pasta with clams. Use one you'd drink.

Flavour. Rich, deeply flavoured and slightly gamey; fattier than chicken with crispy skin when rendered properly.

Aroma. Deeply meaty.

Common uses. Roasted whole (Peking duck, French canard à l'orange), confit duck legs, duck breast pan-fried skin-side first, duck ragù, Chinese tea-smoked duck. The fat is gold.

Flavour. Rich, savoury and faintly poultry-like; the gold standard for roast potatoes and confit.

Aroma. Subtle and savoury.

Common uses. Confit duck legs, roast potatoes (incomparable for crispness), pan-frying fish or steak, in salade lyonnaise. Strain after frying duck breast for free-by-product use.

Flavour. Mild and rich, with a faint sweetness from the yolk and a clean savouriness from the white.

Aroma. Almost neutral; develops a sulphur note when overcooked.

Common uses. Breakfast in every form (fried, scrambled, poached, boiled), binder for meatballs and burgers, leavener and structure in cakes, custard base, fresh pasta, mayonnaise and aioli, the rise in soufflés and meringues.

Flavour. Mild, slightly eggy and tender; firmer than rice noodles.

Aroma. Faintly wheaty.

Common uses. Chinese chow mein, lo mein, Cantonese soup noodles, Singaporean laksa, German spätzle (a freshly-made cousin), British buttered noodles. Cook briefly - they overcook fast.

Flavour. Faintly savoury and clean; almost flavourless on its own.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Meringues, soufflés, macarons, pavlova, royal icing, egg white omelettes, clarifying stocks (the white "raft"), Korean fried chicken velveting. Whip in a clean, fat-free bowl.

Flavour. Mild and clean, barely flavoured; the structural ingredient of meringues and soufflés.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Meringues, soufflés, royal icing, financiers, angel food cake, clarifying stocks, mayonnaise-free emulsions, in cocktails (whisky sour for foam). Cream of tartar stabilises.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and faintly sweet; the savoury heart of the egg.

Aroma. Rich and slightly sulphurous.

Common uses. Hollandaise, mayonnaise, custards, crème brûlée, ice cream bases, pasta dough, Carbonara, glazing pastries. Tempers slowly into hot liquids to avoid scrambling.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and faintly sweet; carry most of the fat and flavour.

Aroma. Rich and faintly sulphurous.

Common uses. Hollandaise, mayonnaise, custards (crème anglaise), ice cream, lemon curd, carbonara, sabayon, fresh pasta. The thickening and emulsifying agent of countless sauces and bakes.

Flavour. Mild and slightly bitter raw; transforms into rich, custardy depth when roasted, grilled or fried. American name for aubergines.

Aroma. Faint raw; intensely smoky when charred.

Common uses. Eggplant parmesan, baba ganoush, moussaka, ratatouille, Sichuan fish-fragrant eggplant, Thai green curry. Salt before frying to remove water.

Flavour. Rich, savoury and slightly sweet; the yolk carries most of the flavour, the white is mild.

Aroma. Subtle raw; sulphurous when overcooked.

Common uses. Breakfast staples (boiled, fried, poached, scrambled), binders for meatballs and burgers, the rise in cakes and meringues, custard bases, fresh pasta, mayonnaise, glazes for pastry.

Flavour. Neutral; provides a glossy golden surface to baked goods.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Brushed onto pastry, bread, pies and tarts before baking for shine and colour. Whisk one whole egg (or egg + a splash of milk) and apply with a brush. Some recipes use yolk only for deeper colour.

Flavour. Slightly chewy with a soft, pillowy crumb; aysh baladi is the classic Egyptian wholemeal flatbread, leavened and round.

Aroma. Toasty and wheaty.

Common uses. Eaten with every meal across Egypt - to scoop ful medames, to wrap ta'amia (falafel), to dip into baba ganoush. Pita is the closest Western substitute.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; the curved tubular pasta shape with a hollow centre that catches sauce.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Mac and cheese (the classic American shape), pasta salads, minestrone, baked pasta dishes. The shape suits creamy, clingy sauces.

Flavour. Fiercely hot, sharp and sinus-clearing; freshly made (from powder and water) for maximum heat.

Aroma. Pungent and sharp.

Common uses. On roast beef, with British pork pies, on ham sandwiches, in Welsh rarebit, in deviled eggs, in glazes for ham. Colman's is the iconic brand.

Flavour. Pungent and very hot when mixed with water; dry powder is mild but blooms into fierce heat with liquid.

Aroma. Sharp when wet.

Common uses. Mix with cold water just before serving for maximum heat. Stirred into cheese sauces, deviled eggs, salad dressings, batters. Heat dissipates with time and warmth.

Flavour. Mild, crisp and slightly sweet; very long thin white stems with tiny caps.

Aroma. Subtle and faintly earthy.

Common uses. Japanese hot pots (shabu-shabu, sukiyaki), Korean stews and barbecue, in stir-fries, raw in salads, scattered over noodle soups. Trim the cluster base and add at the end.

Flavour. Sharp, herbal and aromatic; bell-pepper-led with garlic, scallion and parsley driving the lift.

Aroma. Fresh herbs, green pepper and garlic.

Common uses. The Haitian green seasoning paste - base marinade for meats, fish and beans; stirred into rice (diri ak djon-djon) and soup joumou. Made in batches and kept refrigerated.

Flavour. Bright red, moderately hot and fragrant; the prized Sichuan chilli for fermenting into doubanjiang.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Pixian doubanjiang production, dried whole in Sichuan stir-fries and braises, the colour-and-flavour chilli of Sichuan cooking. Substitute with kashmiri chillies for similar results.

Flavour. Concentrated, slightly caramelised milk with a fuller body; sweetness depends on whether condensed milk is meant (the sweetened version).

Aroma. Slightly cooked and milky.

Common uses. Hong Kong-style milk tea, fudge, custards, traditional macaroni and cheese, panna cotta (lighter than cream), Caribbean rice pudding. Unsweetened despite "concentrated" cousins.

Flavour. Mild, wheaty and slightly chewy; the burrito-size flour wrap, 25-30cm across.

Aroma. Toasty when warmed.

Common uses. Burritos, quesadillas, wraps, fajitas. Larger than standard tortillas, big enough to hold a generous filling without splitting.

Flavour. Fruity and grassy with a peppery catch in the throat; the cold-pressed first run from olives, with character that varies by region and harvest.

Aroma. Green and herbal in fresh oils, fading with age.

Common uses. Drizzled raw over salads, soups, bread, finished pasta; used to fry gently (more heat-stable than reputation suggests). The base of Mediterranean cooking.

Flavour. Subtle bready savouriness; the leavener works invisibly in the background.

Aroma. Faintly beery when activated; warm and yeasty as dough rises.

Common uses. Quick-rise breads, no-knead recipes, pizza doughs. Doesn't need blooming in warm water - stir straight into the flour. Same role as instant yeast.

Flavour. Negligible direct flavour; produces the bready warmth of fermentation.

Aroma. Yeasty when proving.

Common uses. Quick-bread recipes, breadmaker loaves, brioche, hot cross buns. Add directly to flour without blooming. Smaller granule than active dry; works faster.

Flavour. Minimal direct flavour; the leavener that produces bread's characteristic warmth and complexity through fermentation.

Aroma. Yeasty as dough rises.

Common uses. Bread, pizza, brioche, cinnamon rolls, doughnuts. Stir straight into flour - no blooming needed. Identical to instant yeast in performance.

Flavour. Rich, deeply lamby and unctuous; the higher fat content (20-30%) gives koftas and burgers their juicy hand-feel.

Aroma. Pronounced lamb richness when seared.

Common uses. Greek and Turkish koftas, Lebanese kibbeh, Moroccan kefta, English shepherd's pie, lamb burgers. Lean lamb works but the fat is what makes these dishes sing.

Flavour. Crisp, faintly anise and sweet raw; mellows and caramelises with cooking.

Aroma. Pronounced liquorice when sliced.

Common uses. Italian salads (raw, paper-thin with parmesan), roasted with olive oil, braised in white wine, pickled, in fish stews (cacciucco, bouillabaisse). The fronds garnish; the stalks flavour stocks.

Flavour. Sweet and faintly aniseed; the cool crunch of raw fennel mellows into rich softness when roasted.

Aroma. Liquorice and grass when raw.

Common uses. Italian salads with citrus and parmesan, roasted whole with oil, braised in white wine, in fish stews, with pork sausages. Every part is used.

Flavour. Sweet, anise-like and slightly grassy; the small, ribbed seeds of the fennel plant.

Aroma. Pronounced liquorice, more pronounced when toasted.

Common uses. Italian sausages and porchetta, Indian masalas and mukhwas, Chinese five-spice, pickled herring brines, breads (especially Italian and Indian). Toast lightly before grinding.

Flavour. Bittersweet, slightly maple-syrupy and earthy; the leafy form, eaten fresh or dried (kasuri methi).

Aroma. Distinctively curry-like, faintly burnt-sugar.

Common uses. Indian methi paratha and methi aloo (fresh), Indian curries and tandoori marinades (dried, crumbled at the end), Iranian ghormeh sabzi, Yemeni hilbeh.

Flavour. Bitter and earthy, with a maple-syrup undertone when toasted; key to "curry" flavour.

Aroma. Curry-like, intensified by toasting.

Common uses. Indian curry powder, Ethiopian berbere, sprouted for salads, ground into ras el hanout, Yemeni hilbeh. Toast lightly; over-toasting turns them bitter.

Flavour. Salty, tangy and crumbly; Greek brined sheep's milk cheese.

Aroma. Slightly milky and tangy.

Common uses. Greek salads, spanakopita, watermelon salad, on pizza, in baked dishes, crumbled over roasted vegetables, with figs and honey. Sheep's milk versions are tangier than cow's.

Flavour. Salty, tangy and slightly crumbly; brined Greek cheese, traditionally from sheep's milk.

Aroma. Mildly milky and tangy.

Common uses. Greek salads (horiatiki), spanakopita, watermelon and feta salads, baked feta with tomatoes, in burek pastries, crumbled into orzo salads.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; the broad, flat egg pasta from Rome, slightly wider than tagliatelle.

Aroma. Faintly wheaty.

Common uses. Fettuccine Alfredo (the Roman dish, not the American), bolognese, mushroom cream sauces, ragùs. Holds rich sauces well; pair with butter, cream or meat sauces.

Flavour. Buttery and crisp; the French puff pastry, made from many laminated layers of butter and dough.

Aroma. Rich, buttery and toasty when baked.

Common uses. Mille-feuille, tarts, vol-au-vents, beef wellington, pithiviers, sausage rolls, palmiers. Making from scratch is a weekend project; shop-bought is fine.

Flavour. Delicate and herbaceous; the classic French blend of parsley, chives, tarragon and chervil.

Aroma. Fresh and gently aromatic.

Common uses. Omelettes (the classic French herb omelette), poached fish, salad dressings, white sauces. Always added at the end - the herbs are tender and don't survive cooking.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, smoky and slightly charred; tinned tomatoes that have been flame-roasted before canning.

Aroma. Faintly smoky.

Common uses. Mexican salsas and chilli con carne, Cajun stews, taco soup, baked egg dishes. Add depth without slow-roasting fresh tomatoes. Muir Glen is the most common brand.

Flavour. Mildly soybean-y and clean; the firmer kind holds shape in stir-fries.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Stir-fries, mapo tofu (medium-firm), Indian tofu tikka, grilled or fried as a meat substitute, in salads. Press between weights to drain extra water for crispier results.

Flavour. Mild, clean and lightly briny; cod, haddock, hake, pollock and ling all qualify.

Aroma. Fresh sea smell.

Common uses. Fish and chips, fish pies, Mediterranean fish stews, fish cakes, fish curries. Versatile - takes batter, breadcrumbs, sauces and marinades equally well.

Flavour. Mild, slightly sweet and clean; cod, haddock, hake, pollock all work.

Aroma. Fresh ocean.

Common uses. Beer-battered for fish and chips, baked under herb crusts, in fish stews (cataplana, cioppino), poached in milk for kedgeree, dredged in cornmeal and fried.

Flavour. Rich, gelatinous and intensely fishy in the best way; the cheeks and bone marrow are the prize.

Aroma. Strong and oceanic.

Common uses. The base of fish stock (bouillabaisse, fish soup), Southeast Asian curries (Singaporean fish head curry, Bengali macher matha), Korean maeuntang stew. Don't throw away.

Flavour. Intensely salty, savoury and pungent; fermented anchovies and salt, mellowing dramatically in cooked dishes.

Aroma. Strongly fishy raw; rounds into umami when cooked.

Common uses. Thai (nam pla), Vietnamese (nước mắm) and Filipino (patis) cooking - in marinades, dipping sauces, soups, stir-fries, curries. Three Crabs and Red Boat are top brands.

Flavour. Delicate, briny and clean; lighter than meat stocks.

Aroma. Fresh sea smell.

Common uses. The base for bouillabaisse, fish soups, risotto ai frutti di mare, fish pie liquid, paella stock. Simmer briefly (20-30 minutes) - long cooking turns fish stock bitter.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Balanced sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami; built on star anise, cloves, cinnamon, Sichuan pepper and fennel.

Aroma. Warm, sweet and slightly numbing.

Common uses. Chinese roast duck, char siu, Vietnamese pho, marinades for pork and chicken, dusted on belly pork. A pinch goes a long way.

Flavour. Sweet, mild and buttery; the thin slices toast quickly and develop a deeper roasted flavour.

Aroma. Faint raw; warm and nutty when toasted.

Common uses. Toasted over salads, ice cream, cakes (Bakewell), trout amandine, granola, rice pilafs. Lightly toasted in a dry pan transforms them.

Flavour. Cleanly salty with a faint mineral character; the irregular flaky crystals dissolve on the tongue.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Finishing on caramels and chocolate, on roasted vegetables, sprinkled over steaks just before serving, on focaccia, on sliced tomatoes. Maldon is the most famous brand.

Flavour. Cleanly salty with subtle mineral undertones; the large flat crystals melt on the tongue.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Finishing salt only - on caramels and chocolate, on roasted vegetables, over steaks, on focaccia, on bread with butter. Maldon and fleur de sel are the gold standards.

Flavour. Clean, slightly peppery and green; more flavour than the curly variety.

Aroma. Fresh and herbaceous.

Common uses. Chopped over almost any savoury dish at the end. Goes into gremolata, chimichurri, tabbouleh, salsa verde, persillade. Stems carry flavour for stocks and bouquet garni.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; the texture (plain, strong/bread, cake) matters more than the flavour for baking.

Aroma. Subtle and faintly wheaty.

Common uses. Baking (cakes, breads, pastry, biscuits), thickening sauces, dusting work surfaces, coating fish and chicken for frying, in batters and dumplings. The universal pantry staple.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; not really a flavour ingredient - just a thin coating.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Scattered on work surfaces before rolling out pastry or pizza dough, dusted onto banetons for proving bread, on top of cakes before adding to the tin. Sift for evenness.

Flavour. Mild, wheaty and slightly chewy; the wheat-based wrap of northern Mexico and Tex-Mex cooking.

Aroma. Toasty when warmed.

Common uses. Burritos, quesadillas, wraps, fajitas, breakfast tacos. Warm before serving on a dry pan or comal. Larger and softer than corn tortillas.

Flavour. Mild and starchy; the high-starch varieties (Maris Piper, King Edward, Russet) that collapse into fluffy mash and crisp into roast potatoes.

Aroma. Earthy raw; toasty when roasted.

Common uses. Mash, roast potatoes, chips, baked potatoes, gnocchi. NOT for salads or boiled potatoes - they fall apart. Waxy potatoes (Charlotte, fingerling) hold shape better.

Flavour. Sweet, savoury and caramelised; deeply transformed from raw onions through slow cooking in fat.

Aroma. Sweet and toasty.

Common uses. Caramelised on burgers and steaks, in French onion soup, layered over biryani, as the start of stews and curries (Indian fried onion paste, doppiaza). Crispy ones top hot dogs.

Flavour. Sweet (ripe yellow) or starchy and savoury (green) - depending on ripeness; deeply caramelised on the surface.

Aroma. Sweet and toasted.

Common uses. Caribbean platanos maduros, Latin American tostones (twice-fried green plantain), African dodo, Filipino caramelised banana sweet. Side dish with rice and beans.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, savoury and crisp; the universal Southeast Asian garnish.

Aroma. Sweet and toasty.

Common uses. Topping pho, Indonesian fried rice, Thai salads, Vietnamese pork chops, congee, dal. The oil they're fried in is also useful as a flavoured cooking oil.

Flavour. Fresh, mild and slightly tangy; lighter than crème fraîche, similar to thick yogurt.

Aroma. Mild and lactic.

Common uses. French desserts, dolloped on fruit or muesli, in dips, on jacket potatoes, lighter alternative to mayonnaise in dressings. Skim varieties are popular for low-fat cooking.

Flavour. Sharp, piney and slightly soapy, with a peppery citrus edge; like ginger's tougher, more pine-like cousin.

Aroma. Pronounced piney and citrus.

Common uses. Thai green and red curries (essential, not optional), tom yum and tom kha gai soups, Indonesian rendang, Malaysian curry pastes. Don't substitute ginger blindly - the flavour is entirely different.

Flavour. Warm, aromatic and complex; built on cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, peppercorns, cumin, coriander, fennel and bay - the proportions vary by household.

Aroma. Toasty, sweet-spiced and warm.

Common uses. Added near the end of Indian curries (heat dissipates the aromatics), in dry rubs, dusted over rice, in lentil dishes. Toast whole spices and grind for the deepest flavour.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sharp and pungent raw, mellow and sweet when roasted, deeply savoury when fried gently.

Aroma. Strong and sulphurous when cut; rich and toasty when cooked.

Common uses. Almost universal across world cuisines. Fried as the start of a sauce, roasted whole and spread on bread, raw in aioli and Caesar dressing, baked into bread, simmered into stocks. A bad clove (green sprout) tastes bitter; pop the sprout out before using.

Flavour. Pungent, sharp and warmly spicy; the equal-parts blend that forms the base of countless Indian and Pakistani dishes.

Aroma. Strong garlic-ginger punch.

Common uses. Tempered in hot oil at the start of curries, marinades, biryanis, kebabs. Make fresh in batches; freeze in ice cube trays for daily use.

Flavour. Sharp and pungent raw; mellow and sweet when roasted, deeply savoury when fried gently.

Aroma. Strong and sulphurous when cut; rich and toasty when cooked.

Common uses. The backbone of savoury cooking worldwide. Fried as the start of a sauce, roasted whole and spread, raw in aioli, baked into bread, simmered into stocks.

Flavour. Sharp and pungent raw; sweet and mellow when slow-cooked or roasted.

Aroma. Strong sulphury raw; rich and toasty when fried.

Common uses. The starting point of countless savoury dishes - fried in oil, roasted whole, raw in aioli, in vinaigrettes, infused into oils, in pestos. Cut the green sprout out of older cloves.

Flavour. Concentrated and sharply garlicky; the smooth version that distributes evenly through marinades.

Aroma. Strongly garlic.

Common uses. Indian and Pakistani cooking (tempered into oil at the start), marinades, tandoori bases, dressings, dips, BBQ rubs. Convenient pre-made; fresher tastes better than jarred.

Flavour. Concentrated, sweetish-savoury garlic flavour without the fresh edge; smoother in dressings and rubs.

Aroma. Faintly garlic, intensifies in hot fat.

Common uses. Cajun rubs, BBQ rubs, breading mixes, garlic bread spread, dressings, popcorn seasoning. Different from fresh - some recipes specifically need the dry form.

Flavour. Intensely garlicky, creamy and pungent; the Lebanese emulsified garlic sauce, similar to aioli but without egg.

Aroma. Powerfully garlic.

Common uses. Served with grilled chicken (shawarma, shish taouk), spread in wraps, dipped into with French fries, drizzled over kebabs. Made by emulsifying garlic with oil and lemon juice.

Flavour. Sweeter and milder than English mustard with a brown-grain backbone; Düsseldorf is sharper, Bavarian sweeter.

Aroma. Vinegary with a soft mustard prickle.

Common uses. Brats, weisswurst, schnitzel, pretzels; spread thinly on rye sandwiches; folded into salad dressings.

Flavour. Nutty, rich and slightly caramelised; clarified butter where the milk solids brown before being strained.

Aroma. Toasty and rich.

Common uses. Indian cooking (the cooking fat of choice for tempering, frying chapatis, rice dishes, sweets), Middle Eastern dishes (samna), high-heat frying anywhere else. Lasts months unrefrigerated.

Flavour. Tart, briny and crunchy; small pickled cucumbers, often in vinegar with dill or sugar.

Aroma. Vinegary and slightly herbal.

Common uses. On burgers and hot dogs, sliced into salads, with cold cuts and pâté, in tartare sauce and rémoulade, on cheese boards. Cornichons are the French small version.

Flavour. Hot and zingy, with a sweet citrus undertone. Sharper raw, mellower when cooked.

Aroma. Bright, peppery and lemon-like.

Common uses. Foundational across East and South Asian cooking, often paired with garlic. Grated into stir-fries, curries, marinades, dipping sauces; sliced into broths; candied for biscuits and cakes; brewed for tea.

Flavour. Sharp, fresh and slightly hot; the pure ginger blend that distributes evenly.

Aroma. Pungent and citrusy.

Common uses. Indian and Pakistani curries (tempered into oil at the start), marinades, dressings, stir-fries. Make fresh from peeled ginger and a little oil; freeze in cubes for daily use.

Flavour. Warm, slightly hot and faintly sweet; the dried ground form has a different flavour than fresh ginger.

Aroma. Warm and spicy.

Common uses. Gingerbread, ginger snaps, mulled wine spice mixes, Christmas baking, ras el hanout, North African tagines. Reach for fresh when a recipe specifies it.

Flavour. Pungent, sharp and warmly spicy; the equal-parts foundation of South Asian cooking.

Aroma. Strong garlic-ginger punch.

Common uses. Tempered into hot oil at the start of Indian and Pakistani curries, used in marinades for biryani and kebabs, in tandoori bases. Make in big batches; freeze in cubes.

Flavour. Mild and slightly springy; mostly a texture rather than flavour ingredient.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Korean japchae, Vietnamese spring roll fillings (cellophane noodles), Thai yum woon sen salads, Chinese ant-climbing-tree (ants on a log), filling for steamed dumplings.

Flavour. Mildly sweet with no caramel or molasses notes; less sweet than sucrose.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Preventing crystallisation in caramels, fudge, ice cream and sorbet (key for smoothness), in sugar work (pulled sugar). Available as syrup or powder.

Flavour. Mildly sweet with no caramel notes; thick and viscous.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Stops sugar crystals forming in ice cream, sorbets, caramels, fondants and pulled sugar; in candy work; gives a smooth gloss to fruit gels. Corn syrup substitutes.

Flavour. Mild and starchy; "glutinous" refers to the chewy stickiness, not gluten (it has none).

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Japanese mochi, Chinese tangyuan, Thai khanom and pandan desserts, mochi ice cream, Korean tteokbokki rice cakes. Different from rice flour - check the bag.

Flavour. Lean and slightly gamy; deeper than lamb but cleaner than mutton. Benefits from long slow cooking.

Aroma. Mineral and faintly grassy; mellows over braising.

Common uses. Caribbean curry goat, Mexican birria, Indian "mutton" curries (where mutton often means goat), Greek kid roasts at Easter; great in stews, biryani and tagines.

Flavour. Mildly hot, smoky and slightly sweet; coarsely ground Korean red chilli flakes.

Aroma. Smoky and fruity.

Common uses. Kimchi (essential, not optional), Korean kimchi jjigae, dakgalbi, gochujang base, sprinkled over Korean BBQ, tofu stews. Sun-dried gochugaru has the best flavour.

Flavour. Sweet, spicy, salty and umami-rich; Korean fermented red chilli paste with glutinous rice and soybean.

Aroma. Funky, hot and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Korean bibimbap (the red sauce), bulgogi marinades, tteokbokki, jjigae stews, ssamjang, glazes for grilled meat. A spoonful transforms anything.

Flavour. Sweet with caramel and butterscotch notes; British inverted sugar syrup, less assertive than molasses or treacle.

Aroma. Buttery and toffeed.

Common uses. Steamed sponge puddings, treacle tart, parkin, flapjacks, gingerbread, ANZAC biscuits, drizzled over porridge. Lyle's in the iconic green and gold tin.

Flavour. Rich, savoury and faintly poultry-like; richer than duck fat.

Aroma. Subtle and savoury.

Common uses. Christmas roast potatoes (incomparable), confit, on toast (a French peasant treat), in cassoulet, frying potatoes for crisp golden chips. A jar lasts months in the fridge.

Flavour. Sweet, lightly cinnamon and honey-tinged; American wholemeal crackers, sweeter than British digestive biscuits.

Aroma. Toasty and faintly honey-y.

Common uses. S'mores (with marshmallows and chocolate over a fire), cheesecake bases (crushed and bound with butter), key lime pie crust, ice cream sandwiches. McVitie's digestives are the British substitute.

Flavour. Nutty, slightly sweet and savoury; the cousin of parmesan but milder and softer.

Aroma. Nutty and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Grated over pasta, in risotto, on salads, in soufflés, in pestos. Cheaper than Parmigiano Reggiano and slightly less complex but very usable.

Flavour. Sweet, orange-perfumed and cognac-rich; the orange liqueur built on cognac and bitter Caribbean orange peel.

Aroma. Bittersweet orange and warm spirit.

Common uses. Crêpes Suzette, soufflés, Christmas baking, in chocolate truffles, classic cocktails (sidecar, B-52). Just a tablespoon adds depth without dominating.

Flavour. Pure sweet - no caramel or molasses notes; the everyday white sugar.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Sweetening drinks and coffee, baking, sauces, marinades, glazes, in canning brines, jam-making. The finer crystals dissolve faster than crystal sugar.

Flavour. More potent and slightly sweeter than Italian oregano; the dried form is more pungent than fresh.

Aroma. Strongly herbaceous, faintly minty.

Common uses. Greek salads (sprinkled over the cheese and tomatoes), souvlaki and gyros marinades, lemon roast chicken, in slow-cooked lamb stews. Use sparingly - it dominates.

Flavour. Rich, tangy and thick; strained to remove whey for a creamy texture.

Aroma. Mildly lactic.

Common uses. With honey and walnuts for breakfast, in tzatziki, marinades for tandoori chicken (the acid tenderises), substitute for sour cream, in cake batters for moisture, in baking.

Flavour. Tangy, thick and creamy; the strained yogurt with most whey removed.

Aroma. Lactic.

Common uses. Tzatziki, sour cream substitute, baking, dolloped over savoury and sweet dishes, drained further into labneh. Full-fat is richest; 0% works for low-fat cooking.

Flavour. Fresh, slightly grassy and crisp when blanched; thick fleshy pods.

Aroma. Fresh and green.

Common uses. Niçoise salad, green bean casserole (American Thanksgiving), Indian beans poriyal, French haricots verts, blanched and shocked for crudités, stir-fries. Snap off the stem ends.

Flavour. Slightly bitter and grassy; the underripe form of red bell pepper, with a vegetal sharpness.

Aroma. Pungent and fresh.

Common uses. Cajun trinity (with onion and celery), Italian and Greek stuffed peppers, fajitas, salsas, salads, on pizzas. Less sweet than red, yellow or orange - those are riper.

Flavour. Grassy and slightly bitter; firmer-textured than ripe red or yellow peppers.

Aroma. Pungent and vegetal.

Common uses. Cajun and Creole trinity, stuffed peppers (Greek gemista, Mexican chiles rellenos), fajitas, salsas, salads, pizzas. The classic stir-fry pepper.

Flavour. Sharp, fiery heat with a fresh, grassy edge; the underripe form of the small Thai bird chilli.

Aroma. Bright and herbaceous.

Common uses. Thai green curry paste, fresh salsas, som tam, dipping sauces, Vietnamese pho garnish. Both green and red are equally hot.

Flavour. Hot and slightly fruity; long, narrow green chillies of moderate fire.

Aroma. Bright and fresh.

Common uses. Indian green chutneys, Sri Lankan curries, Bengali fish curries, Thai stir-fries, Australian recipes (where they're common). Substitute serrano or jalapeño.

Flavour. Mild and slightly peppery; the standard tight-headed cabbage.

Aroma. Subtle raw; sulphurous if overcooked.

Common uses. Coleslaw, sauerkraut, stuffed cabbage rolls, Russian borscht, Polish bigos, Korean kimchi (with napa), bubble and squeak, stir-fries. Holds up to long cooking.

Flavour. Slightly bitter, grassy and firm; the Australian and Indian name for green bell pepper.

Aroma. Pungent and fresh.

Common uses. Indian capsicum curries, Cajun trinity, fajitas, stuffed peppers, sliced into stir-fries, in salsas and salads. Less sweet than the ripe red or yellow form.

Flavour. Intensely aromatic, sweet and slightly camphor-like with citrus and floral notes.

Aroma. Floral, eucalyptus-edged and warm.

Common uses. Indian biryanis and pulao, masala chai, kheer, Scandinavian buns, Arabic coffee. Bruise lightly to release oils; fish out before serving.

Flavour. Concentrated cardamom flavour without the husk; potent and immediately aromatic.

Aroma. Floral and warm.

Common uses. Ground for spice mixes and pastries, infused into milk for kheer and rice pudding, sprinkled into rice. Three pods give roughly one teaspoon of seeds.

Flavour. Sharp, bright heat with a grassy edge; varies by variety from mild Anaheim to fiery serrano.

Aroma. Fresh and pungent.

Common uses. Mexican salsas, Indian chutneys and curries, Thai pastes, Southeast Asian stir-fries. Deseed for less heat without losing flavour.

Flavour. Bright, grassy heat; ranges from mild jalapeño through serrano to bird's-eye fire.

Aroma. Fresh and pungent.

Common uses. Indian green chutneys, Mexican guacamole and salsa, Thai green curry paste, Southeast Asian stir-fries, Vietnamese pho topping. Slit and deseed to moderate heat.

Flavour. Negligible - a few drops carry colour without flavour change.

Aroma. Neutral.

Common uses. Pandan substitute or boost in onde-onde and kuih, mint ice cream, decorative icing, themed bakes. Pair with a drop of pandan or matcha for a more natural cast.

Flavour. Earthy and slightly peppery with a firm bite; hold their shape better than red lentils.

Aroma. Mildly nutty and beany.

Common uses. Mujadara, lentejas chilenas, lentil soup, French Puy-style salads, lentil bolognese; do not need pre-soaking and cook in 25-30 minutes from dry.

Flavour. Salty, slightly bitter and grassy; sharper and tarter than ripe black olives.

Aroma. Briny.

Common uses. Italian aperitivo plates, Spanish tapas, Greek salads, in pasta puttanesca, stuffed with pimientos for martinis, in tapenade. Castelvetrano and Manzanilla are the most common eating varieties.

Flavour. Mild, sweet and slightly sulphurous; the white and green parts of immature onions. American name for spring onions.

Aroma. Subtle and fresh.

Common uses. Asian stir-fries (the white in cooking, green as garnish), Mexican salsas, Chinese pancakes, scattered over noodle soups, in salads, in dumpling fillings, raw on tacos.

Flavour. Crisp, slightly tart and mildly bitter; the unripe fruit, eaten as a vegetable.

Aroma. Faintly green and grassy.

Common uses. Thai som tam (papaya salad), Vietnamese gỏi đu đủ, Filipino tinola, Indian raw papaya pachadi. The fruit has natural meat-tenderising enzymes.

Flavour. Slightly bitter and grassy; the underripe form of red bell pepper.

Aroma. Pungent and fresh.

Common uses. Cajun trinity, stuffed peppers, fajitas, salsas, sliced into stir-fries, salads, pizzas. Substitute for any sweet pepper but expect more bite.

Flavour. Slightly bitter and grassy; firmer than the riper red or yellow forms.

Aroma. Pungent and fresh.

Common uses. Cajun trinity, stuffed peppers, fajitas, sliced into stir-fries, raw in salads. The Indian/Asian "green capsicum" is the same thing.

Flavour. Starchy and slightly bitter; the unripe form is firm and not sweet, behaving more like a potato.

Aroma. Subtle and starchy.

Common uses. Caribbean tostones (twice-fried green plantain), Cuban mariquitas (chips), Latin American sancocho, African fufu (boiled and pounded), savoury chips.

Flavour. Starchy and slightly bitter; firm and savoury, treated like potatoes.

Aroma. Subtle and starchy.

Common uses. Tostones (fried twice, smashed), Caribbean and Latin American stews and soups (sancocho), African fufu, plantain chips, side for rice and beans.

Flavour. Sweet, tart and slightly floral; pomegranate syrup, classically made from pomegranate juice and sugar.

Aroma. Sweet and faintly fruity.

Common uses. Tequila sunrise, Shirley Temples, classic cocktails (Jack Rose), splashed over fruit and ice cream, drizzled into champagne. Watch labels - cheap versions are corn syrup with red food colour.

Flavour. Mild and slightly nutty; refined peanut oil with a high smoke point.

Aroma. Faintly nutty.

Common uses. Chinese stir-frying, Indian deep-frying, Thai cooking, anywhere a neutral high-heat oil is needed. Cold-pressed has more peanut flavour; refined is neutral.

Flavour. Nutty, slightly sweet and savoury; the Swiss Alpine cheese that melts beautifully.

Aroma. Sweet, hay-like and faintly butterscotch.

Common uses. French onion soup gratin, fondue, croque monsieur, quiche, gratin dauphinois, cheese soufflés. The Swiss-style melting cheese par excellence.

Flavour. Mild to medium heat with deep, slightly tangy, berry-like notes; rich red colour.

Aroma. Earthy, sweet and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Mexican mole, salsa roja, adobo for marinated meats, chilli con carne. Rehydrate in hot water then blend. With ancho and pasilla, one of the "holy trinity" of dried Mexican chillies.

Flavour. Rich, smoky, deeply caramel and floral; Malaysian palm sugar from the coconut palm.

Aroma. Toffee-and-caramel sweetness.

Common uses. Malaysian sago gula melaka (the namesake dessert), Indonesian es cendol, Vietnamese chè, balanced in Southeast Asian curry pastes. Cake palm sugar is the form to look for.

Flavour. Earthy and slightly herbal, with a peppery edge; the ground dried leaves of the sassafras tree.

Aroma. Faintly herbal.

Common uses. Stirred into Louisiana gumbo at the end (never cooked - it gets stringy), thickens and adds the signature flavour. Optional in modern gumbos but iconic in traditional ones.

Flavour. Intensely hot (100,000-350,000 SHU) with fruity, tropical notes; complex behind the searing heat.

Aroma. Bright and fruity, slightly floral.

Common uses. Yucatecan salsas (especially cochinita pibil), Caribbean jerk and pepper sauces, fruit-based hot sauces. A single chilli for a whole dish; deseed to moderate heat.

Flavour. Salty, squeaky and mild; high melting point means it grills and fries without losing shape.

Aroma. Mildly milky.

Common uses. Grilled in slices for salads and wraps, fried for halloumi fries, in Cypriot meze, on burger buns as a vegetarian patty, kebabs. The cheese that holds its shape over fire.

Flavour. Salty, savoury and faintly sweet; cured, smoked or air-dried pork.

Aroma. Salty and faintly smoky.

Common uses. Sandwiches (ham and cheese, Cubano), in soups (split pea), with eggs benedict, on pizza, in pasta carbonara (or pancetta), Christmas glazed ham, croque monsieur.

Flavour. Mild, savoury yolk and firmer white; the texture varies by cook time.

Aroma. Subtly sulphurous if overcooked.

Common uses. Egg salad, deviled eggs, niçoise salad, ramen toppings (soft-boiled is more common), Russian salad, pickled eggs, Scotch eggs, garnish for cobb salad. 9-11 minutes for firm yolk.

Flavour. Hot, smoky and slightly sweet, with caraway and coriander warmth; the North African chilli paste.

Aroma. Smoky and warmly spiced.

Common uses. Tunisian and Moroccan tagines and stews, couscous, marinades for grilled meats, stirred into yogurt for a quick dip, brushed onto roast chicken or aubergine. Belazu and Le Cabanon are reliable jars.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Hot, smoky and richly red, with caraway and coriander complexity; varies by maker.

Aroma. Smoky and warmly aromatic.

Common uses. Stirred into Moroccan tagines and couscous, smeared onto roast chicken or lamb, swirled into hummus or yogurt, on flatbreads, in salad dressings. Belazu rose harissa is a common reference.

Flavour. Sweet, buttery and faintly bitter from the skin; deeply nutty when toasted.

Aroma. Warm and nutty, especially when toasted.

Common uses. Nutella, pralines, Italian baci and torte, dukkah, in salads with goat's cheese and pears, ground into flour for cakes (chocolate-hazelnut tortes), in pestos. Toast and rub off the papery skins.

Flavour. Earthy and slightly bitter raw; sweetens and develops caramelised notes when roasted.

Aroma. Mild when handled well; sulphurous when overcooked.

Common uses. Roasted with garlic and chilli, steamed as a side, blended into soup, in pasta sauces, char-grilled with lemon. The whole-head form to break down into florets.

Flavour. Tender, sweet and faintly grassy; loose, ruffled leaves with a buttery texture.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Soft salads where the leaves are folded rather than chopped, lettuce wraps (San Choy Bow), Vietnamese spring rolls, classic French salade. Bibb and Boston are common varieties.

Flavour. Mild, peppery and slightly sweet; the tight whole-head form ready to break down.

Aroma. Subtle raw; sulphurous when overcooked.

Common uses. Coleslaw, stir-fries, sauerkraut, Russian borscht, stuffed cabbage rolls, Polish bigos, kimchi base (with napa). Quarter and core before shredding or wedging.

Flavour. Varies by herb - delicate (chervil, basil) to robust (rosemary, sage); generally fresh, green and aromatic.

Aroma. Each herb has its signature scent.

Common uses. Universal across cuisines - finishing dishes raw, infused into oils and butters, in bouquets garni and herb bundles, in pestos and chimichurris, baked into bread.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly tangy and warm; the Colombian sofrito of slow-cooked onion, tomato, garlic and cumin.

Aroma. Onion-rich and warm.

Common uses. The base of Colombian cuisine - bandeja paisa, ajiaco, frijoles, served as a sauce over rice and beans, stuffed into arepas. Made in batches and refrigerated.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, salty and savoury, with five-spice undertones and a thick, jammy texture.

Aroma. Sweet and slightly funky.

Common uses. The Peking duck sauce (with pancakes), Chinese stir-fries, Vietnamese pho dipping sauce, glaze for ribs and char siu, marinades for grilled chicken. Lee Kum Kee is the most common brand.

Flavour. Peppery, slightly clove-like and warming; sharper and more savoury than Italian or Thai basil.

Aroma. Pungent and clove-y.

Common uses. Thai pad krapow (the classic stir-fried mince dish), Thai jungle curry, Lao laap, Indian ayurvedic teas (tulsi). The leaf to fry hard at the end of a Thai stir-fry.

Flavour. Sweet, with floral, fruity or smoky undertones depending on the bee's forage.

Aroma. Floral and warm; some varieties (chestnut, manuka) are noticeably medicinal.

Common uses. A finishing drizzle on toast, yoghurt, cheese; the sweet end of a salad dressing or marinade; a glaze on roasted ham or carrots; a substitute for sugar in baking when you want depth.

Flavour. Intensely hot and sinus-clearing, with a clean burn that fades fast; freshly grated is sharper than jarred.

Aroma. Sharp and immediately stinging.

Common uses. Roast beef accompaniment, Bloody Mary, prawn cocktail sauce, smoked fish dishes, Polish chrzan, Japanese wasabi substitute (most wasabi outside Japan IS horseradish + green dye).

Flavour. Sharp, direct heat with minimal complexity; varies by source.

Aroma. Pungent and warm.

Common uses. Indian curries, Mexican adobo, chilli con carne, dry rubs, sprinkled into bloody Marys, devilled eggs. A pinch goes a long way.

Flavour. Hot, sweet and complex, with a deeper, fruitier flavour than ordinary chilli powder.

Aroma. Warm, slightly fruity.

Common uses. Hungarian goulash and pörkölt (paprikash), Hungarian sausage seasoning, dry rubs, in stews where you want both heat and depth. Look for Szegedi or Kalocsai sourcing.

Flavour. Hot, fruity and slightly sweet; the chilli is bolder than ordinary chilli powder, balanced with paprika's warmth.

Aroma. Warm and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Hungarian goulash, dry rubs, deviled eggs, on grilled meats, in stews for warmth without overt fire. Spanish pimentón picante is the Spanish version.

Flavour. Vinegary and hot, with regional flavours - Tabasco is sharp and direct, Frank's is mild and tangy, Crystal is balanced.

Aroma. Pungent and vinegary.

Common uses. On eggs, in Bloody Marys, on hot dogs, deviled eggs, fried chicken, mac and cheese, gumbo, oysters. The universal table condiment.

Flavour. Hot and vinegary; varies wildly by origin - Tabasco is fiery, Frank's is balanced, Sriracha is garlicky-sweet, sambal is funky.

Aroma. Pungent and tangy.

Common uses. Splashed on eggs, tacos, Bloody Marys, hot dogs, fried chicken; tossed with butter for Buffalo wings; mixed into mayo for a quick sauce. Endless variety.

Flavour. Creamy, lemony and tahini-rich; the Middle Eastern chickpea purée seasoned with garlic and tahini.

Aroma. Nutty (from tahini) and faintly citrus.

Common uses. With warm pita, on mezze platters, spread on wraps and sandwiches, dolloped onto bowls and salads, topped with herbs, oils or roasted vegetables. Best homemade.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Hot, fruity and complex; the heated version of Hungarian paprika is more nuanced than ordinary chilli powder.

Aroma. Warm and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Goulash, pörkölt, lecsó, Hungarian sausage seasoning, dry rubs. The right paprika makes Hungarian cooking what it is.

Flavour. Sweet and warm with no heat; deeply red and richly aromatic.

Aroma. Warm and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Hungarian goulash (the foundation), chicken paprikash, deviled eggs, on potatoes and devilled eggs, in spice mixes. Szegedi paprika is the gold standard.

Flavour. Neutral and cold.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Cocktails (shaken and stirred), iced coffee and tea, ice baths for blanched vegetables, chilling poaching liquids, in ice cream churning, packed around fresh fish.

Flavour. Cold and neutral.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Cocktails (whisky on the rocks, gin and tonic), iced drinks, ice baths for vegetable blanching, chilling broths and stocks fast. Crushed for shaved-ice desserts.

Flavour. Cold, slightly fizzy and neutral.

Aroma. Faintly mineral.

Common uses. Tempura batter (the bubbles make it light), pancake batter, beer-battered fish, batter for vegetable fritters, instead of plain water in some breads. Always ice-cold for tempura.

Flavour. Pure, fine sweetness; contains a small amount of cornflour to prevent clumping.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Royal icing, glacé icing, dusting cakes and doughnuts, buttercream, fondant, lemon drizzle cake glaze. Sift before use to remove lumps. Confectioners' sugar in America.

Flavour. Pure sweet, ultrafine; the powdery form that adheres to surfaces.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Dusted over baked goods (lemon drizzle cake, brownies, lamingtons, Linzer cookies), Christmas mince pies, doughnuts, churros. Sift through a small sieve for even coverage.

Flavour. Faintly cinnamon, faintly clove and warm; related to but different from European bay (tej patta is more cinnamon-like).

Aroma. Warm and faintly sweet.

Common uses. Indian biryani, pulao, korma, dal, garam masala. Always added whole; pull out before serving. Don't substitute European bay - different plant, different flavour.

Flavour. Faintly cinnamon and clove-warm; tej patta is the Indian version - related to but distinct from European bay.

Aroma. Warm and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Indian biryani, pulao, slow-cooked curries, masala chai, garam masala. Add whole, fish out before serving. Different plant from European bay despite the shared name.

Flavour. Concentrated coffee with slight bitter notes; freeze-dried granules dissolve in hot water.

Aroma. Roasted coffee, less complex than ground.

Common uses. Quick coffee, but also in coffee cake batter, chocolate brownies (to deepen the chocolate), in tiramisu (when espresso isn't handy), Vietnamese egg coffee, Frappuccino base.

Flavour. Minimal direct flavour; produces the warm, bready savouriness of fermentation.

Aroma. Yeasty as dough rises.

Common uses. Bread, pizza, brioche, cinnamon rolls. Stir straight into flour - no need to bloom. Active dry yeast needs warm water first; instant skips that step.

Flavour. Negligible direct flavour; the leavener that produces bread's bready warmth through fermentation.

Aroma. Yeasty as dough rises.

Common uses. Bread, pizza dough, brioche, hot cross buns, doughnuts. Add directly to flour - no blooming needed. SAF-Instant and Doves Farm are common brands.

Flavour. Funky, deeply savoury and slightly bitter; West African fermented locust beans.

Aroma. Strongly fermented and umami-rich.

Common uses. Nigerian egusi soup, Beninese moyo, Senegalese thiéboudienne, Ghanaian stews. A spoonful adds deep umami; an acquired taste. Also called dawadawa or nététou.

Flavour. Sweet, smoky and caramel-rich, with mineral and slightly molasses notes; unrefined sugar from sugarcane or palm.

Aroma. Warm caramel and slightly funky.

Common uses. Indian sweets (ladoo, halwa, gur), South Indian sambar (a touch balances tamarind), spice tea, payasam. Gula melaka is the Malaysian palm version.

Flavour. Medium heat with a bright, slightly grassy edge; the everyday Mexican green chilli.

Aroma. Fresh and pungent.

Common uses. Fresh in salsas, guacamole, salsa verde, on tacos and nachos; pickled (escabeche) on sandwiches and pizzas; smoked and dried becomes chipotle.

Flavour. Medium-hot with grassy, bright notes; the most common North American fresh chilli.

Aroma. Fresh and pungent.

Common uses. Fresh in salsas, guacamole and pico de gallo, sliced on nachos and pizzas, pickled for sandwiches, stuffed and fried (poppers), smoked and dried becomes chipotle.

Flavour. Turmeric-rich, slightly hot and aromatic; built on coriander, cumin, fenugreek, turmeric and allspice.

Aroma. Warm and slightly sweet.

Common uses. Jamaican curry chicken, curry goat, oxtail, salt fish curries. Bloomed hard in oil at the start of cooking to release the aromatics. Betapac is a popular brand.

Flavour. Rich, eggy and slightly sweeter than Western mayo, with rice vinegar tang and only egg yolks (no whites).

Aroma. Subtle and faintly sweet.

Common uses. Drizzled on okonomiyaki and takoyaki, in Japanese egg sandwiches (tamago sando), tonkatsu sandwiches, sushi rolls (spicy mayo with sriracha), Korean fried chicken sauce. Kewpie is the iconic brand.

Flavour. Mild, slightly sweet and faintly nutty; cooks plump and slightly sticky.

Aroma. Subtly sweet.

Common uses. Sushi (with vinegar), onigiri, donburi rice bowls, ochazuke, kayu (rice porridge). Rinse until water runs clear, then soak before cooking. Calrose is a common Western substitute.

Flavour. Slightly nutty and faintly sweet, with a popcorn-like fragrance; long-grain Thai rice.

Aroma. Pronounced floral popcorn scent when cooking.

Common uses. Thai curries, Vietnamese pho rice (broken), Cambodian rice dishes, plain steamed as the everyday Southeast Asian rice. Rinse twice before cooking; don't over-soak.

Flavour. Fiery, smoky and warmly spiced; built on Scotch bonnet, allspice, thyme, ginger and brown sugar.

Aroma. Smoky and herbal, with chilli heat.

Common uses. Jamaican jerk chicken and pork (rubbed onto the meat and grilled over pimento wood), jerk fish, jerk vegetables. The dry rub or wet paste forms are interchangeable.

Flavour. Piney, slightly bitter and resinous; the flavour of gin.

Aroma. Pine and slightly citrus.

Common uses. Game stews (venison, wild boar), sauerkraut, gravadlax cure, marinades for pork, mulled wine, gin (where the flavour comes from). Crush lightly to release oils.

Flavour. Sweet, nutty and slightly chestnut-like; the Japanese pumpkin with deeply orange flesh and edible skin.

Aroma. Faintly sweet raw; rich and caramel when roasted.

Common uses. Japanese tempura, simmered nimono, Thai gaeng kiew wan curry, roasted as a side, blended into soup. The edible skin softens with cooking; no need to peel.

Flavour. Sweet, dense and chestnut-like; the Japanese pumpkin with edible skin.

Aroma. Sweet and faintly nutty when roasted.

Common uses. Japanese kabocha no nimono, tempura, Thai green curry, roasted with miso glaze, in soup. Edible skin is a bonus - no peeling required.

Flavour. Warm, complex and aromatic; built on cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, dried lime, nutmeg and bay.

Aroma. Sweet-spiced and warm.

Common uses. Saudi and Gulf kabsa (the rice-and-meat national dish), machboos, mandi. Toasted in ghee at the start of cooking before adding rice and meat.

Flavour. Intensely citrus and slightly floral; the leaves of the makrut lime tree.

Aroma. Sharp, perfumed citrus - unmistakable.

Common uses. Thai green and red curries, tom kha gai, Indonesian rendang, Cambodian samlor, Vietnamese soups. Bruise or tear before adding; remove before serving (or eat carefully - tough).

Flavour. Rich, salty and slightly winey; the pointed dark purple Greek olive.

Aroma. Briny and faintly fruity.

Common uses. Greek salad (essential), tapenade, pasta puttanesca, on antipasti boards, in olive bread, with feta and tomatoes, in stews. Pit before chopping; they're tender.

Flavour. Earthy, slightly bitter and robust; sturdy enough for long cooking or massaging into raw salads.

Aroma. Vegetal raw; sulphurous if overcooked.

Common uses. Tuscan ribollita, Portuguese caldo verde, Brazilian feijoada accompaniment, massaged kale salads (with lemon and oil), kale crisps. Cavolo nero (lacinato) is the smoother-leaved variety.

Flavour. Tangy, salty and intensely savoury; a Middle Eastern dried fermented whey, like a dry feta-yogurt hybrid.

Aroma. Funky and slightly cheesy.

Common uses. Persian kashk-e bademjan (the aubergine dip), dolloped onto soups, into ash-e reshteh, served alongside Iranian meals. Often sold dried; reconstitute in water.

Flavour. Mild heat with deep, fruity red colour; the dried-and-ground Kashmiri chilli is prized for hue more than fire.

Aroma. Fruity and slightly smoky.

Common uses. Indian curries, tandoori chicken (for the colour), Rogan Josh, makhani sauce. The chilli that makes butter chicken its rich red without making it mouth-burning.

Flavour. Mild heat with deep red colour and fruity, slightly smoky flavour.

Aroma. Fruity and slightly smoky.

Common uses. Indian curries for colour and gentle warmth, tandoori marinades, Rogan Josh, makhani sauce. Often used whole and rehydrated, or ground into Kashmiri chilli powder.

Flavour. Mildly hot, fruity and smoky, with intense red colour.

Aroma. Earthy and faintly fruity.

Common uses. Rehydrated for Indian curry pastes, ground into Kashmiri chilli powder, in tandoori marinades, Rogan Josh. The chilli for deep red colour with friendly heat.

Flavour. Mild heat with deep red colour; chosen for colour as much as flavour.

Aroma. Fruity and faintly smoky.

Common uses. Tandoori chicken, butter chicken, Rogan Josh, makhani sauce. The mild chilli that gives Indian restaurant curries their classic red hue without searing heat.

Flavour. Mild and fruity with deep red colour; the famous Indian chilli prized for colour over fire.

Aroma. Earthy and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Rehydrated and blended into Indian curry pastes, ground into Kashmiri chilli powder, in tandoori marinades. Soak whole in hot water 20 minutes before blending.

Flavour. Bittersweet, slightly maple-syrupy and earthy; dried fenugreek leaves crumbled into Indian curries at the end.

Aroma. Distinctively curry-like, almost burnt-sugar.

Common uses. Crumbled into the final minute of butter chicken, methi chicken, dal makhani, paneer dishes. A small handful transforms a curry from good to authentic-tasting.

Flavour. Sweet, thick and intensely savoury, with palm sugar and soy depth.

Aroma. Sweet, fermented and warm.

Common uses. Indonesian nasi goreng, satay sauce, marinades for grilled meats, glazes for chicken and pork. The unique sweetness sets it apart from Chinese dark soy.

Flavour. Sharply salty, firm and tangy; the Greek hard sheep's milk cheese for grating.

Aroma. Salty and slightly milky.

Common uses. Grated over Greek pasta dishes (pastitsio, kritharoto), fried for saganaki, in spanakopita, in tyropita. Pecorino Romano is the nearest substitute outside Greece.

Flavour. Sweet, tangy and tomato-rich; balanced sugar, vinegar, salt and tomato.

Aroma. Sweet tomato and vinegar.

Common uses. On burgers, hot dogs and fries; in cocktail sauce (with horseradish), in meatloaf glaze, BBQ sauces, sweet and sour sauces, in Eastern European borscht sometimes. Heinz is the global default.

Flavour. Mild, wheaty and slightly chewy; Moroccan everyday bread, round and flatter than European loaves.

Aroma. Toasty when warm.

Common uses. Eaten with every Moroccan meal - to scoop tagines, dip into harira, stuffed with eggs for breakfast, alongside fresh cheese. The Moroccan equivalent of a slice of bread.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, milky and caramel-rich; whole milk slowly reduced to a thick paste, the foundation of Indian sweets.

Aroma. Cooked milk and slight caramel.

Common uses. Indian gulab jamun, peda, barfi, kheer, kalakand, ras malai. Sold in blocks at Indian grocers; or make from scratch by slowly reducing whole milk.

Flavour. Mild, slightly chewy and faintly sweet; Saudi tannour bread, baked against the wall of a clay oven.

Aroma. Toasty and faintly smoky.

Common uses. Eaten with every Saudi meal - scooped through hummus, tucked around kebabs, served with stews. Tannour-baked breads across the Gulf and Levant.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Mild, earthy and slightly sweet; the dark red bean holds shape through long cooking.

Aroma. Earthy.

Common uses. Chilli con carne, Caribbean rice and peas, Indian rajma, Louisiana red beans and rice, in mixed bean salads. Must boil hard at the start (10 minutes) to neutralise toxins.

Flavour. Spicy, sour, salty and funky; fermented napa cabbage with gochugaru, garlic, ginger and fish sauce.

Aroma. Funky and pungent.

Common uses. Korean banchan side, in kimchi jjigae, kimchi fried rice, on burgers, in tacos, in pancakes (kimchijeon). The fermentation makes it gut-friendly.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Sweet, briny and tender; the larger size means they hold up to grilling and stir-frying.

Aroma. Fresh sea smell.

Common uses. Garlic king prawns (Spanish gambas al ajillo), Thai pad thai, prawn cocktail, scampi, paella, on barbecue skewers, in laksa.

Flavour. Dry, bittersweet and almond-like, distilled from sour cherries; clear and pungent.

Aroma. Strongly cherry and almond.

Common uses. Black Forest gateau, Swiss cheese fondue (a splash), Christmas pudding, fruit salads, sabayon, in chocolate truffles. A small amount transforms a cherry dessert.

Flavour. Salty, oceanic and intensely umami; the dried kelp that gives Japanese dashi its body.

Aroma. Briny and faintly mineral.

Common uses. Dashi base (with bonito flakes), simmered as side dishes (kombu tsukudani), used to season cooking water for beans (makes them more digestible), into shōjin ryōri vegetarian cooking.

Flavour. Cleanly salty with no anti-caking off-flavour; the irregular larger crystal makes it easy to pinch and sprinkle.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. American chef's default - seasoning meat, koshering meat (where the name comes from), salt baths and brines, on rimmed cocktail glasses. Diamond Crystal is the popular brand.

Flavour. Crisp, clean and slightly bitter; lower alcohol and lighter than ale.

Aroma. Faintly malty and slightly hoppy.

Common uses. Beer-battered fish, beer can chicken (the can goes inside the bird), German bratwurst, Mexican carne en su jugo. Cooking with lager keeps things light vs darker stouts.

Flavour. Mildly tangy and spongy; the Yemeni fermented sourdough flatbread with characteristic pancake-bubble surface.

Aroma. Faintly fermented and yeasty.

Common uses. Yemeni and Somali breakfasts (with honey, butter or herbs), torn to scoop stews and curries, alongside Yemeni saltah. Similar to Ethiopian injera but lighter.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Rich, slightly sweet and gamey, with a distinctive mineral edge; varies by cut from lean (leg) to rich (shoulder).

Aroma. Strongly meaty.

Common uses. Roasted leg or shoulder, lamb chops, kebabs, curries (rogan josh, vindaloo), Greek souvlaki, slow-cooked tagines, mince for koftas and shepherd's pie.

Flavour. Rich, gelatinous and intensely lamby; bone marrow adds body and depth to stocks.

Aroma. Deeply meaty when roasted before simmering.

Common uses. Lamb stock (the base for shepherd's pie gravy, French navarin, Moroccan harira), roasted whole as marrow bones, bones for braising shanks. Roast before stocking for deeper colour.

Flavour. Rich, fatty, deeply flavoured; the cheapest cut and arguably the most rewarding when slow-cooked.

Aroma. Mutton-leaning, sweetened by rendered fat.

Common uses. Slow-roasted with spices, rolled and stuffed, braised in stews; central to many Lebanese and Lahori dishes. Needs 2 to 3 hours of low heat to render properly.

Flavour. Rich, distinctive and intensely lamby; saved from trimming or rendered separately for cooking.

Aroma. Pronounced lamb.

Common uses. Frying naan and breads, rendering for tallow, Middle Eastern rice dishes, Iranian and Afghan cooking. Adds an unmistakable richness to anything fried in it.

Flavour. Rich, slightly gamey and savoury; the fat content (15-25%) makes lamb mince juicier than beef.

Aroma. Distinctly meaty when seared.

Common uses. Greek and Turkish koftas, shepherd's pie, moussaka, lamb burgers, Middle Eastern kibbeh, Indian keema. The richer fat gives a more forgiving texture than beef mince.

Flavour. Rich, deeply lamby and gelatinous; the connective tissue breaks down into silky tenderness over long braises.

Aroma. Intensely meaty.

Common uses. Slow-braised in red wine (Moroccan-spiced, Mediterranean herbs), Greek kleftiko, in tagines, served over mash or polenta. Need hours - quick cooking leaves them tough.

Flavour. Rich, well-marbled and intensely lamby; the slow-braised cut that turns meltingly tender.

Aroma. Deeply meaty when slow-roasted.

Common uses. Slow-roasted (7-hour lamb shoulder), Moroccan tagines, Indian curries, Greek kleftiko, ragù bianco. Resists overcooking - the more time, the better.

Flavour. Rich, slightly sweet and well-marbled; the shoulder cut ground for fattier, juicier mince.

Aroma. Pronounced lamb.

Common uses. Premium koftas, lamb burgers, Middle Eastern kibbeh, kibbeh nayyeh (raw), shepherd's pie. Higher fat than mince from leg - choose for richness.

Flavour. Rich, deeply meaty and slightly gamey; less common than chicken or beef stock but irreplaceable in some dishes.

Aroma. Strongly meaty.

Common uses. Shepherd's pie gravy, French navarin, Moroccan harira, ragùs, braising liquids for lamb shanks, Middle Eastern rice dishes.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Mild, slightly porky and rich; less assertive than butter, with a higher smoke point.

Aroma. Subtle and clean.

Common uses. Traditional pastry (Mexican, British, Cuban), refried beans, tortillas, frying chicken, Italian carnitas. Gives flakier results than butter; the secret of proper Mexican tamales.

Flavour. Salty, smoky and porky; small strips of fatty bacon cut from the slab.

Aroma. Smoky when frying.

Common uses. French salads (frisée aux lardons), coq au vin, boeuf bourguignon, quiche Lorraine, lentil dishes, in tarte flambée. Crisp them first, then scatter or use the rendered fat.

Flavour. Mild, sweet and faintly oniony; tender and subtle compared with onion.

Aroma. Delicate and slightly grassy.

Common uses. Vichyssoise, Scottish cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup, leek tart, on top of fish dishes (poached), in cawl. Wash thoroughly - grit hides in the layers.

Flavour. Sweet and gently oniony, with a delicate herbal undertone.

Aroma. Subtle and grassy.

Common uses. Soups (vichyssoise, leek and potato), risottos, gratins, tarts, alongside fish, French cassoulet, Welsh cawl. Split lengthways and rinse - grit hides in the layers.

Flavour. Sharp and sour from the juice; the zest carries the aromatic citrus oils with no acidity.

Aroma. Bright, clean, instantly recognisable.

Common uses. Squeezed over fish, salads, vegetables; juice in dressings and curd; zest in baking and over pasta; whole halves into a roasting chicken; preserved in salt for North African cooking.

Flavour. Bright, citrus and slightly woody; the perfumed grass essential to Southeast Asian cooking.

Aroma. Lemon-citrus with grassy undertones.

Common uses. Thai tom yum, Vietnamese bún bò Huế, Indonesian rendang, in Thai pastes. Bruise the stalk to release oils; remove tough outer layers and use the tender inner core.

Flavour. Sharp, sour and bright; freshly squeezed has body and zing that bottled lacks.

Aroma. Bright citrus.

Common uses. Dressings, marinades, finishing fish and roast chicken, lemon curd, lemonade, lemon meringue pie, hollandaise. Use fresh - bottled can taste flat or off.

Flavour. Sharp and acidic; the squeezable cut for finishing dishes at the table.

Aroma. Bright citrus.

Common uses. On fish (battered or grilled), with falafel and shawarma, in tequila shots, on wings, in cocktails (gin and tonic), with desserts (tarte au citron). The squeeze just before eating.

Flavour. Bright citrus and grassy, with faint pine and floral notes; the heart of Southeast Asian aromatic blends.

Aroma. Strong lemon-pine.

Common uses. Thai pastes (red, green, massaman), Vietnamese pho and bún bò Huế, Indonesian rendang, infusions for syrups and teas. Bruise hard, use the tender bottom 10cm.

Flavour. Lemon-citrus and grassy, with subtle pine notes; aromatic when bruised.

Aroma. Bright lemon.

Common uses. Tied in knots and dropped into Thai curries and soups, bruised hard for marinades, sliced fine and pounded into pastes. Remove the woody upper layers; use the bottom 10cm.

Flavour. Bright citrus and grassy, with pine and floral edges.

Aroma. Strong lemon-pine.

Common uses. Knotted into tom yum, sliced thin into Thai pastes, infused into syrups and teas, bruised into marinades. Use the bottom tender 10cm; discard the tough top.

Flavour. Sharp and sour from the juice; the zest carries the aromatic oils with no acidity.

Aroma. Bright, clean citrus.

Common uses. Squeezed over fish, salads, roast chicken; zested into baking, dressings and pasta; whole halves into roasting cavities; preserved in salt for North African cooking.

Flavour. Mild, fresh and crisp; varies by type from sweet butter lettuce to slightly bitter cos/romaine.

Aroma. Subtle and grassy.

Common uses. San Choy Bow (Chinese lettuce wraps), Vietnamese spring rolls, fattoush, Caesar salad, BLT sandwiches, taco fillings. Wash thoroughly and spin dry.

Flavour. Mildly sweet with subtle caramel and slight molasses notes; less assertive than dark brown sugar.

Aroma. Warm and faintly caramel.

Common uses. Chocolate chip cookies, banana bread, BBQ rubs and marinades, banoffee, ginger cake, in baked beans, on porridge. The everyday brown sugar.

Flavour. Mild and almost neutral; refined for higher smoke point and milder flavour than extra-virgin.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Frying, dressings where you don't want strong olive flavour, baking (light cakes, citrus loaves), mayonnaise. "Light" refers to colour and flavour, not calories.

Flavour. Salty, savoury and slightly sharper than dark soy; the everyday soy sauce in Chinese cooking.

Aroma. Salty and slightly fermented.

Common uses. Chinese stir-fries (most everyday cooking), dipping sauce for dumplings, marinades, soup bases. Sometimes called "thin soy"; saltier and less viscous than dark.

Flavour. Sharper and more floral than lemon, with a slight bitterness from the skin.

Aroma. Tropical, perfumed, with a sherbet brightness.

Common uses. The acid in most Mexican, Thai, Vietnamese and Caribbean cooking. Squeezed over tacos and ceviche, into pad Thai and tom yum, salsas, marinades, key lime pie, gin and tonics. Kaffir lime leaves and zest are separate ingredients in their own right.

Flavour. Sharp, sour and more floral than lemon; the heart of Mexican, Thai and Caribbean dressings.

Aroma. Bright and tropical.

Common uses. Margaritas, ceviche, Vietnamese nước chấm, Thai dressings, guacamole, Mexican salsas, Cuban mojo, key lime pie. Always fresh; bottled tastes off.

Flavour. Intensely citrus and slightly floral; the leaves of the makrut lime tree.

Aroma. Sharp and perfumed citrus.

Common uses. Thai curries (green and red), tom kha gai, Indonesian rendang, Cambodian samlor. Bruise or tear before adding; remove before serving (or eat carefully - tough).

Flavour. Intensely salty, sour and spicy; preserved limes broken down into a deeply savoury condiment.

Aroma. Powerfully pungent.

Common uses. Indian thali plates, served with curries and dals, dolloped on jacket potatoes, on cheese sandwiches, mixed into raita. Patak's is the most common British brand.

Flavour. Sharp, sour and floral; squeezed at the table to finish.

Aroma. Bright tropical citrus.

Common uses. Mexican tacos, Thai dishes, Vietnamese pho, with chilli mango or guacamole, in cocktails (gin and tonic, mojito), with shellfish. The squeeze just before eating.

Flavour. Intensely citrus and aromatic; the coloured outer skin where all the essential oils sit, no acidity.

Aroma. Sharp tropical citrus.

Common uses. Key lime pie, Thai curries, ceviches, drinks (margaritas), lime curd, on chocolate desserts, in dressings. Use a microplane; avoid the bitter white pith.

Flavour. Sharp and floral, with more zip than lemons; the zest is intensely aromatic.

Aroma. Bright tropical citrus.

Common uses. Squeezed over tacos and pho, into ceviche and guacamole, on grilled fish, in cocktails (margaritas, mojitos, daiquiris), in marinades, in Thai dressings.

Flavour. Mild and wheaty; the flat oval pasta shape.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Linguine alle vongole (the classic), pesto, light cream sauces, with prawns and chilli, primavera. Holds delicate sauces well.

Flavour. Mildly sweet without molasses notes; thick, clear and viscous.

Aroma. Negligible.

Common uses. Caramels, fudge, ice cream and sorbet (prevents sugar crystals forming), in sugar work (pulled sugar, isomalt), in cake decorating, glossing fruit gels. Cleaner than corn syrup.

Flavour. Slightly sweet and tender, with a denser texture than green beans; tropical green pods up to 60cm long.

Aroma. Fresh and green.

Common uses. Thai pad prik king, Indonesian gado-gado, Chinese stir-fries (often with chilli and garlic), Filipino sinigang, Korean side dishes. Also called yardlong beans or asparagus beans.

Flavour. Mild to moderate heat, fresh and grassy; longer than jalapeño with thinner walls.

Aroma. Fresh and pungent.

Common uses. Indian green chutneys and curries, Chinese stir-fries, Mexican salsa verde, sliced raw on salads, pickled. Banana peppers and Anaheim are similar Western varieties.

Flavour. Mild to medium heat with a fresh, grassy edge; thin-walled and less seedy than jalapeño.

Aroma. Fresh and bright.

Common uses. Indian curries and chutneys, Chinese stir-fries, fresh salsas, pickled and on pizza, sliced raw in salads. Anaheim and banana peppers are similar.

Flavour. Mild to medium heat with sweet, slightly fruity notes; the riper form of long green chilli.

Aroma. Sweet and fruity.

Common uses. Sliced into Thai stir-fries and salads, Indian curries, Mexican salsas, on noodles, in Chinese cooking. Red Fresno and red jalapeño are close substitutes.

Flavour. Mild to medium heat with sweet, fruity character; ripened red form.

Aroma. Sweet and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Sliced into Thai stir-fries, Indian curries, Chinese hot-and-sour soups, Indonesian sambals, pickled. Red Fresnos and red jalapeños substitute.

Flavour. Subtly nutty and floral; the long elongated grains cook separate and fluffy.

Aroma. Pronounced floral popcorn fragrance.

Common uses. Indian biryani, pulao, Persian chelow, plain steamed rice, kheer. Rinse until clear before cooking; soaking gives the lightest grain.

Flavour. Mild and slightly starchy; cooks separate and fluffy when made properly.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Indian and Pakistani biryani, Persian chelow, fried rice (older rice fries better), in Southern American gumbo and jambalaya, basmati or jasmine are the most fragrant kinds.

Flavour. Mild and slightly starchy; the everyday long-grain rice for fluffy steamed accompaniments.

Aroma. Subtle.

Common uses. Plain steamed rice, fried rice, Latin American rice and beans, gumbo, jambalaya, pilaf. Rinse to remove starch; cook 1:2 rice to water for steaming.

Flavour. Mild to moderate heat with bright vinegar tang; cayenne-based, less sharp than Tabasco.

Aroma. Pungent and vinegary.

Common uses. On eggs, gumbo, jambalaya, fried fish, oysters, splashed into Bloody Marys. Frank's RedHot (slightly milder) is the gateway brand; Crystal is the classic Louisiana style.

Flavour. Mild, savoury and chicken-flavoured with reduced salt; the cook controls the seasoning.

Aroma. Warm and meaty.

Common uses. Risotto (the salt control matters), Asian noodle soups, sauces and gravies that reduce significantly, when adding salty ingredients like soy sauce.

Flavour. Salty, savoury and slightly fermented, with about 40% less sodium than regular soy.

Aroma. Faintly fermented.

Common uses. Anywhere regular soy is used - stir-fries, marinades, dipping sauces - when the cook wants more control over saltiness, or when adding multiple salty ingredients.

Flavour. Warm and faintly bitter, with hints of sweetness; the lacy red covering of the nutmeg seed.

Aroma. Aromatic and more complex than nutmeg.

Common uses. Béchamel and mornay sauces, potted shrimp, Indian biryanis and garam masala, English Bath buns, mulled wine. Blade form simmers whole; ground works in baking.

Flavour. Salty, savoury and intensely umami; a hydrolysed-plant-protein liquid seasoning.

Aroma. Soy-and-yeast funk.

Common uses. Indian street food (a few drops on chaat or maggi noodles), Swiss and German cooking (in soups and gravies), Vietnamese pho dipping sauce. A few drops is plenty.

Flavour. Concentrated savoury umami; chicken, beef or vegetable in salty bouillon form.

Aroma. Strong stock-y aroma when dissolved.

Common uses. African and Asian cooking (Senegalese thieboudienne, Vietnamese pho, Filipino dishes), in stews when fresh stock isn't available, crumbled into mince for quick savoury depth.

Flavour. Slightly bitter and cherry-almond-like; ground from the kernel inside St Lucie cherry pits.

Aroma. Faintly cherry-marzipan.

Common uses. Greek and Lebanese sweet breads (tsoureki, ma'amoul), Cypriot flaounes, koulourakia biscuits, Armenian baklava. A pinch transforms sweet breads from ordinary to traditional.

Flavour. Intensely citrus and slightly floral; the leaves of the makrut (formerly "kaffir") lime tree.

Aroma. Sharp perfumed citrus.

Common uses. Thai green and red curries, tom kha gai, Indonesian rendang, Cambodian samlor. Bruise or tear before adding; remove before serving (or eat carefully - tough).

Flavour. Intensely savoury, slightly fishy and umami-rich; dried, smoked and shaved skipjack tuna.

Aroma. Briny and smoky.

Common uses. Sri Lankan curries (essential), Maldivian dishes (mas huni), sambols, fish puttu. Substitute Japanese bonito flakes if unavailable.

Flavour. Tangy, slightly sweet and faintly malty; made from malted barley, the British everyday vinegar.

Aroma. Malt and vinegar.

Common uses. Sprinkled on fish and chips (the only correct use), pickling brines, ploughman's lunches, brown sauce, mint sauce. Sarson's is the iconic British brand.

Flavour. Mildly sweet and slightly malty; thick, viscous and slower to crystallise than sugar.

Aroma. Faintly malty.

Common uses. Chinese roast meat glazes (char siu, Peking duck), candy work where smoothness matters, Cantonese desserts. Honey or golden syrup substitutes.

Flavour. Sweet, crisp and tender; flat edible pea pods (snow peas) eaten whole.

Aroma. Fresh and grassy.

Common uses. Chinese stir-fries, Thai green curry, sliced into salads, blanched and served raw. Stir-fry for 60-90 seconds maximum to keep crisp.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly tart and tropical; ripe varieties are honey-sweet with floral notes; unripe (green) are sour.

Aroma. Tropical, floral and sweet when ripe.

Common uses. Ripe: Indian mango lassi, mango sticky rice, fresh salsas, ice cream, smoothies. Green: chutneys, raw mango salad (Thai), amchur powder, pickles.

Flavour. Sweet, tangy and slightly spiced; chunks of mango cooked with sugar, vinegar and warming spices.

Aroma. Fruity and faintly spiced.

Common uses. British Indian restaurant condiment (with poppadums), Coronation chicken, with cheese on a ploughman's, glazing roast ham, in cheese sandwiches. Sharwoods is a British classic.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Honeyed, peachy and slightly tangy; varieties range from sharp green Kesar to perfumed Alphonso.

Aroma. Floral, tropical and resinous.

Common uses. Mango lassi, kulfi, Thai sticky rice with mango, fruit salads, ceviche and salsa verde; green unripe mangoes star in pickles, chutneys and som tam.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and faintly sweet; the Spanish word for butter, sometimes with regional variations (Mexican mantequilla is often slightly tangier).

Aroma. Sweet and dairy.

Common uses. Mexican beans, Cuban toast with butter, Spanish breakfast tostadas, in pastry, Mexican biscuits. Used the same way as any other butter.

Flavour. Sweet with caramel and woody notes; grade A is mild, darker grades have deeper flavours.

Aroma. Sweet caramel and faintly woody.

Common uses. Pancakes and waffles (the classic), in marinades and glazes (especially for bacon, salmon and squash), in baking (pies, cookies), drizzled over yogurt. Real maple, not "table syrup".

Flavour. Intensely sweet, slightly tart and almond-edged; preserved in sugar syrup with bitter almond flavouring.

Aroma. Sweet cherry-almond.

Common uses. Black Forest gateau, on top of milkshakes and ice cream sundaes, cocktail garnish (Manhattan, Old Fashioned), in fruit cake. Luxardo is the premium brand.

Flavour. Floury, slightly nutty potato that crisps brilliantly when roasted and mashes into fluffy clouds.

Aroma. Earthy and starchy.

Common uses. Roast potatoes (the British gold standard), chips, baked potatoes, mash, gnocchi. The high starch content gives crisp outsides and fluffy insides; King Edward is the close cousin.

Flavour. Floury and faintly nutty; the British potato variety for roasties and chips.

Aroma. Earthy.

Common uses. Sunday roast potatoes, fish-and-chip shop chips, baked potatoes, mash, gnocchi. High starch content + lower moisture = crispier roasts. King Edward is the close cousin.

Flavour. Sweet, slightly floral and pine-y; gentler than oregano with a more delicate finish.

Aroma. Sweet and herbal.

Common uses. Italian and Greek cooking - lamb stews, tomato sauces, marinades for grilled meats, in herbes de Provence, on pizza. Pairs well with thyme and rosemary; less assertive than oregano.

Flavour. Intensely salty, savoury and yeasty; concentrated yeast extract that's either loved or hated.

Aroma. Powerfully yeasty.

Common uses. Spread thin on buttered toast, stirred into stock for umami depth, in cheese on toast (Welsh rarebit), in gravies. A teaspoon transforms a beef stew. Vegemite is the Australian cousin.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and faintly sweet; thick Italian fresh cheese made from cream.

Aroma. Sweet and dairy.

Common uses. Tiramisu (the layered base), folded into pasta sauces, on French toast, in cheesecake (mascarpone-style), with roasted figs. Cream cheese is a passable substitute.

Flavour. Mild and faintly wheaty, with the toasted note of unleavened bread; ground from matzo crackers.

Aroma. Subtle and toasty.

Common uses. Passover cooking - matzo balls (the broth-floating dumplings), schnitzel coating, matzo brei, gefilte fish binder. A unique flavour and texture - not interchangeable with breadcrumbs.

Flavour. Rich, creamy and slightly tangy; egg yolk emulsion with oil and vinegar (or lemon).

Aroma. Mild and faintly eggy.

Common uses. Sandwiches, salads (potato, egg, chicken, coleslaw), aioli (with garlic), tartare sauce, rémoulade, dips, in cake batters (chocolate mayo cake). Hellmann's and Kewpie are the references.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Nutty, slightly oxidative and savoury with a touch of sweetness; amontillado is the classic medium-dry.

Aroma. Nutty and complex.

Common uses. Sherry trifle, Spanish soup bases (gazpacho), in pâté, splashed into mushroom dishes, on Christmas cake. Drink the same one alongside.

Flavour. Moderate heat with fruity sweetness; jalapeño or red Fresno-level fire with character.

Aroma. Fresh and slightly fruity.

Common uses. Sliced into Indian curries, Mexican salsas, Thai stir-fries, Caribbean cooking. A balance point between mild bell peppers and fierce bird's-eyes.

Flavour. Varies by type; the category covers anything that melts smoothly (mozzarella, Emmental, gruyère, fontina).

Aroma. Subtle to nutty.

Common uses. Pizza, grilled cheese, fondues, gratins, lasagne, cheese sauces, baked dishes. Choose by the dish - stretchy mozzarella for pizza, nutty gruyère for fondue.

Flavour. Spicy, smoky and lamb-rich, with harissa, cumin and paprika; the iconic North African sausage.

Aroma. Smoky and warmly spiced.

Common uses. Grilled and served with couscous, in tagines, with eggs at brunch (in shakshuka), sliced into bean stews, on baguettes with mustard. Lamb (not pork) is the traditional meat.

Flavour. Sweet and airy; the simplest meringue, made by whisking sugar slowly into beaten egg whites at room temperature.

Aroma. Sweet and vanilla.

Common uses. Pavlova base, baked into kisses and biscuits, on lemon meringue pie, folded into mousses and soufflés. The everyday meringue for most recipes.

Flavour. Sweet, glossy and dense; made by whisking hot sugar syrup into beaten egg whites - cooks the whites and gives a firmer texture.

Aroma. Sweet.

Common uses. The base of Italian buttercream (silky and stable), for finishing tarts (torched), in mousses where structure matters, in macarons. More complex than Swiss or French meringue.

Make it yourself

Flavour. Spicy, smoky and intensely seasoned; soft fresh sausage with paprika, vinegar and chillies, very different from Spanish dry-cured.

Aroma. Pungent and warmly spiced.

Common uses. Crumbled into tacos, queso fundido, breakfast burritos, frijoles charros, paired with eggs at brunch. Fry to render and crisp; squeezed out of casings before cooking.

Flavour. Rich, tangy and slightly thinner than sour cream; thick cultured Mexican cream.

Aroma. Lactic.

Common uses. Drizzled over tacos and tostadas, on Mexican street corn (elote), in enchiladas suizas, in soups for swirling. Crème fraîche is the closest substitute.

Flavour. Earthier, more citrusy and slightly grassy than Mediterranean oregano; a different plant (genus Lippia, not Origanum).

Aroma. Pronounced citrus and herbal.

Common uses. Mexican adobo, chilli con carne, salsa roja, refried beans, Tex-Mex cooking. Don't blindly substitute Mediterranean oregano - the flavour is distinct.

Flavour. Faintly sweet and creamy; whole milk carries more flavour from the fat than skimmed.

Aroma. Soft and clean fresh; warm and slightly cooked when scalded.

Common uses. Béchamel and white sauces, custards, panna cotta and ice cream bases, porridge and overnight oats, in mash and gratins, in batters for pancakes and Yorkshires, dunking biscuits.